.^^ 



A Method of Measuring 

the Development of 

the Intelligence of 

Young Children 

By Alfred Binet and Th. Simon 



AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION WITH PREFACE 

And an Appendix, Containing an Arrangement of the Tests in Age 
and Diagnostic Groups for Convenience in Conducting Examinations 

By Clara Harrison Town, Ph. D. 



Author of "Two Experimental Studies of the Insane." Formerly 
State Psychologist, Lincoln State School and Colony, Lincoln, 111. 



Third Edition. 



CHICAGO MEDICAL BOOK CO. 

Chicago 
1915 



1?^ 









Copyright 1915 

By 

Clara Harrison Town. 







APR 26 i9I5 
©CI,A398540 



TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 

The article here translated appeared in the "Bulletin de 
la Societe libre pour I'Etude Psychologique de I'Enfant," 
April, 1911. It is a brief but complete statement of the Binet- 
Simon method of examining the intelligence and determining 
the mental level of children. 

The aim of the authors was to present their system of 
tests as finally revised with adequate explanation and instruc- 
tion for its use, but without the theoretical and philosophical 
discussion accompanying its presentation in "L'Annee Psy- 
chologique." It is in fact a convenient manual for those who 
wish to use the method. 

The translator is of the opinion that just such a manual 
is needed in the United States at the present time. So much 
has appeared in our educational press concerning the Binet- 
Simon System and the practical value of its application to 
the problems of special education that a widespread interest 
has been awakened; indeed the system has become popular. 
Unfortunately, this popularity is not paralleled by accurate 
knowledge concerning it. The surface simplicity of the method 
has encouraged many to attempt its application with little 
more knowledge concerning it than that supplied by the list 
of tests. This is undoubtedly largely owing to the fact that 
none of the Binet-Simon articles on the subject have been 
translated in full ; extracts have appeared and many criticisms, 
but the articles themselves have never appeared in English 
form. To put into the hands of our educational public the 
Binet-Simon System in the form and with the instructions and 
explanations presented by its authors, this translation has 
been prepared. 

The series of tests presented in the 1911 article is the 
result of a gradual development. The first form of the Scale 
was published in "L'Annee Psychologique" in 1905 ; this itself 



4 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

was the result of much observation and study of the develop- 
ing child mind. During extended study many simple tests 
were tried, many were discarded, and those that finally sur- 
vived did so only by virtue of their intrinsic value brought 
out by actual trial. The result was a hierarchy of tests ar- 
ranged in the order of their increasing difficulty, one group 
adapted to children of one and two years, and other groups 
to children of four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven 
and twelve years. 

In 1904 an educational measure in Paris required the 
selection of all the mentally defective children in the public 
schools, such selection to be made by means of individual 
examinations. There was at that time no definite method of 
making such examination, and with the object of supplying 
one, Binet and Simon determined to standardize their scale 
of tests. In order to do this, selected groups of pedagoglcally 
average public school children were examined — ten each of 
the ages three to six, and fifteen each of the ages seven to 
twelve, inclusive. The series of tests was finally arranged in age 
groups according to the results of these examinations and 
those previously conducted. 

The Scale was thus standardized. It remained to adapt 
it to the diagnosis of feeble-minded conditions. This was 
achieved by correlating it with the classification of the feeble- 
minded then most generally accepted — the tripartite one into 
idiots, imbeciles and morons. (The last term varies in differ- 
ent countries; moron is the accepted term in the United 
States.) The idiots are those of least mentality, the imbeciles 
those of next higher grade, and the morons those more closely 
approximating the normal in type. There was, however, no 
distinct line of demarkation between the mental condition of 
the idiot and the imbecile, or between that of the imbecile 
and the moron. The criteria most generally used were dif- 
ferences in ability to dress, to eat, and to perform various 
kinds of work. There, however, was no certainty that a case 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 5 

would be diagnosed in the same way by different examiners; 
the personal equation necessarily entered into all diagnoses. 
-^Binet was of the opinion that uniformity of diagnosis should 
be secured, and he succeeded in devising a plan which, if 
generally accepted, would doubtless secure itJ Being a stu- 
dent of language development, and holding the opinion that 
in intellectual development language is so intimately involved 
that it may be considered as one criterion of intellectual level, 
he used three great planes of language development to differ- 
entiate between the mental conditions of idiots, imbeciles and 
morons. According to this classification the idiot never 
reaches the plane of spoken language; he is limited to the 
use and understanding of gesture; the imbecile understands 
spoken language and talks himself in varying degrees of flu- 
ency; the moron, in addition to using spoken language, is 
capable of learning to read and write. Applying this differ- 
entiation to the Scale, the idiots fall to the age groups one 
and two, the imbeciles to the age groups three, four, five, six 
and seven, and the morons to the age groups eight, nine, ten, 
eleven and twelve. Further than the twelve year level the 
feeble-minded individual seems not to develop. 

The feeble-minded patients at the Salpetriere were exam- 
ined by the Scale and it proved to be a most satisfactory 
means of diagnosis, for the reason that each diagnosis carried 
with it a distinct idea of the child's mental status. 

In 1908 the first revision of the Scale appeared, published 
as the result of further experimental work with the method. 
This is the form of the Scale most used in the United States. 
Between 1908 and 1911, the Scale was applied by various 
experimenters as well as by the originators, and as a result 
of the combined findings the final revision of the Scale was 
published in 1911. It appeared in "L'Annee Psychologique" 
in the article entitled "Nouvelle Recherches sur la Mesure 
du Niveau intellectuel chez les Enfants d'Ecole," and in 
the "Bulletin de la Societe libre pour I'Etude psychologique 



6 A MlCTTIOl) OF Ml'.ASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

(Ic riMifant," in the article here translated — "La mcsure du 
Dcvoloppoincnt do rinlollii^cnco chcv jciincs Knfants." 

In conclusion the translator wishes to express her sincere 
thanks to M. Th. Simon anil to Mile. Ciirond, editor of the 
"I'.iilletin dc la Societe lihre pour TFinde Psychologi(|ne de 
rEnfaiil" for their kindness in granting permission to pnhlish this 
translation. 

Clara Uakkison 'J'ovvn. 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 



A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG 

CHILDREN.* 



ALFRED BINET AND T. SIMON. 

The method here presented is one by which the intelli- 
gence of a child may be estimated. The method consists in 
asking the child some precise questions and having him per- 
form some simple experiments; these questions and experi- 
ments are called tests. As much research has revealed wliich 
of these tests a normal child passes successfully at a given 
age, it is ea.sy to ascertain whether the child under examina- 
tion gives results equal to the normal child of his age, or 
whether he is advanced or retarded in relation to this norm. 

The series of tests used in the method, grouped accord- 
ing to age, are as follows : 

THREE YEARS. 

Shows nose, eyes and mouth. 

Repeats two digits. 

Enumerates objects in a picture. 

Gives family name. 

Repeats a sentence of six syllables. 



*We explain here very succinctly our inethod for measuring the 
level of the intelligence of a child. We omit all tlieory, philosophy, 
and discussion, referring the reader interested in these questions to 
L'Annee Psychologique, 1908, p. 1, and 1911, p. 145. In the Bulletin 
only those details will be given which it is necessary to know in order 
to apply the method. 

The present brochure completes that of M. Vaney (No. 68 of (he 
Bulletin, February, 1911) on the "Classes for liackward Children." 
The two brochures sum up all which concerns the recruiting, organ- 
ization and instruction of these classes. 



A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 
FOUR YEARS. 

Gives own sex. 
Names key, knife and penny. 
Repeats three digits. 
Compares two lines. 

FIVE YEARS. 

Compares two weights. 

Copies a square. 

Repeats a sentence of ten syllables. 

Counts four pennies. 

Game of patience with two pieces. 

SIX YEARS. 

Distinguishes between morning and afternoon. 

Defines in terms of use. 

Copies a lozenge. 

Counts thirteen pennies. 

Compares faces from the aesthetic point of view. 

SEVEN YEARS. 

Right hand; left ear. 

Describes a picture. 

Executes 3 commissions. 

Gives value of 9 sous, three of which are double. 

Names 4 colors. 

EIGHT YEARS. 

Compares two remembered objects. 
Counts from 20 to 0. 
Indicates omissions in pictures. 
Gives day and date. 
Repeats 5 digits. 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 9 

NINE YEARS. 

Gives change from 20 sous. 
Defines in terms superior to use. 
Recognizes all the pieces of our money. 
Enumerates the months. 
Understands easy questions. 

TEN YEARS. 

Arranges five weights. 
Copies drawings from memory. 
Criticises absurd statements. 
Understands difficult questions. 
Uses 3 given words in two sentences. 

TWELVE YEARS. 

Resists suggestion (length of lines). 
Composes one sentence containing 3 given words. 
Says more than sixty words in 3 minutes. 
Defines abstract terms. 

Discovers the sense of a sentence the words of which 
are mixed. 

FIFTEEN YEARS. 

Repeats 7 digits. 

Gives 3 rhymes. 

Repeats a sentence of 26 syllables. 

Interprets a picture. 

Solves a problem from several facts. 

ADULT. 

Solves the paper cutting test. 

Rearranges a triangle. 

Gives differences of meanings of abstract terms. 

Solves the question of the President. 

Gives the resume of the thought of Hervieu. 



10 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

We give first the description of the tests and the instruc- 
tions necessary for their application. In a second part we 
point out the general conditions to be observed in holding 
examinations, and the methods of calculation used in esti- 
mating the intelligence of children. 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 11 



PART I. 

DESCRIPTION OF TESTS. 



CHILDREN OF THREE YEARS. 

I. Shows nose, eyes and mouth. — To perform the test 
one should look steadily at the child, attract his attention, 
and repeat several times : "Show me your nose," or "Put 
your finger on your nose," and follow this by repeating the 
same order for the eyes and the mouth. Sometimes the child 
does not comply because he is distracted, or because he is 
timid and too bashful to do that which is desired, but usually, with 
a little insistence, a response is secured. Sometimes a child shows 
his nose by thrusting it forward, without making any hand 
movement, or shows his mouth by opening it, as would an 
animal. This is, in fact, an animal stage, when the hand is 
still a paw, and not an organ used for significant or expressive 
movements. 

As this test and the following ones are especially applic- 
able to very young children, it is necessary that the experi- 
menter be warned that many very young children, especially 
those of three and four years, remain voluntarily mute and 
motionless when questioned. Some consent to do little acts, 
such as showing where the nose is, but they refuse to speak ; 
speech seems to require a greater effort than gesture. The 
directors of the Ecole niaternelle can always point out chil- 
dren who, in class, never answer the teacher, sometimes even 
after two years of attendance; the majority of these mutes 
chatter away with their comrades ; they are mutes only in 



12 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

class. Others, fewer in number, never speak in school either 
to teachers or comrades; but their parents testify that they 
talk at home. Teachers experience great difficulties in the 
effort to encourage sociability in such children. We recall 
a charming director who told us that for a period of two 
years all her efforts to make a certain little boy of four years 
speak were in vain ; she finally succeeded, thanks to the help 
of a cat. One day she left the child alone playing with the 
cat, and gradually he began to talk to it. He said: "Good 
morning, Minet." The miracle was wrought, the child's tongue 
was loosed. 

Imagine the difficulties of an experimenter who, wishing 
to make an examination of intelligence, is met by such a 
silence. What should be done? The help of the teacher is 
often useful. If she is intelligent, she knows what to say to 
her children to reassure them and arouse their courage. A 
caress to one, a reprimand to another, and all goes well. We 
have seen children who persistently refused to perform a 
test, declaring themselves unable; for example, they stood 
before some ribbon, refusing to make a bow or even to touch 
it; after a sharp reprimand they decided to work and pro- 
duced a beautiful rosette. 

11. Repeats two digits. — The repetition of numbers re- 
quires very nearly the same sort of effort as the repetition 
of sentences ; however, as numbers have so much less mean- 
ing than sentences, they make little appeal to the intellect 
or interest, and therefore require a greater effort of attention. 
As a result, a child of three years who can repeat a sentence 
of six syllables can repeat only two digits. The association 
of ideas triples the memory span. 

The experiment is performed as follows : The experi- 
menter tells the child to listen, and begins by pronouncing a 
single digit. The child repeats it. Two digits, not consecu- 
tive, are then given; for example, 3-7, or 6-4. They should 
be pronounced slowly, an interval of half a second being 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 13 

allowed between the two. If an error is made, or some speech 
defect prevents the understanding of the repetition, another 
beginning should be made. It suffices that an exact repeti- 
tion be made once in three trials. When the repetition of 
two digits is possible, three are tried, always at the rate of 
two per second, and always avoiding special emphasis; one 
success in three is still sufficient. Many children of three 
years who repeat two digits with ease are incapable of re- 
peating three; one additional digit greatly increases the diffi- 
culty. When the repetition of three digits is possible, five 
are tried, always under the same conditions of rate and of 
pronunciation, and still considering one success in three suffi- 
cient. It proves much more difficult to repeat five digits than 
three. A great variety of errors are made by the children; 
first a complete silence, then a sort of vagueness and uncer- 
tainty of pronunciation; then a partial repetition in which 
only the last numbers and sometimes only the last number 
are given; next a tendency to give numbers which have not 
been mentioned. Such numbers are not a chance choice, but 
depend upon the natural order of numbers; thus, a subject 
to whom one gives the series 5-8-2-7-4, says 5-8-2-3-4, the two 
naturally calling up the three. Sometimes the phenomenon 
is still more clear, so striking that it implies a very feeble 
critical sense; as when a child who has completely forgotten 
the figures 0-8-2-7-9, says 1-2-3-4-5-6. 

III. Enumerates objects in a picture. — Pictures are in- 
valuable in the examination of children. The most inatten- 
tive child brightens up when shown a picture. It is an almost 
sure road to their confidence. Pictures may be used for many 
purposes ; the child may be asked to point to the various pic- 
tured objects as the examiner mentions them; if he succeeds, 
he has the ability of immediately associating the auditory 
impression of the word with the object for which it stands. 
In this test we use the picture to make the child talk. We 
reverse the former method, having the child name the objects 
which he sees pictured before him, thus testing his ability to 
recall the name of an object which he sees. It is much more 



14 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

difficult for the child to pass in thought from an object to 
its name than from a name to the corresponding object. Be- 
fore the child is placed a picture on which appear many ob- 
jects with which he is familiar and which are interesting to 
him. He is then asked to tell us what he sees. He thus has 
the opportunity to use what language ability he may possess 
in expressing his ideas, and also the liberty of choosing those 
objects which please him most; the response will show us 
what interests the child and will also give us an idea of his 
mentality, of his manner of perceiving, interpreting and reason- 
ing. The test has the remarkable advantage of serving as a 
diagnostic test of three different intellectual levels. The re- 
sponses of the subject indicate whether he is at the level of 
three, seven, or twelve years. There are very few tests which 
yield such rich results. If we add that the test is one of 
those which amuse children the most, and is most useful in 
combatting the persistent silence of the little ones, it seems 
reasonable to conclude that we have found by chance a test 
of exceptional value. We place it above all others ; and were 
we limited to one test, we would without hesitation choose 
this one. 

We use three engravings which are reproduced in the ap- 
pendix (Fig. 1, 2 and 3). If care is taken other analogous 
pictures may be substituted, but ours have a certain standard- 
ized difficulty, and therefore it is better to use them; all 
of ours contain people and suggest a story; these' are 
the essential conditions. The engravings are mounted on 
cards, and are presented one after the other to the child, who 
is asked: "What is this?" Then, if the child is very young, 
he may respond naively : "It is a picture," or "It is a postal 
card." The question is then put in another form : "Tell me 
what you see there." It is very rare, quite exceptional, for 
the child to remain silent. Even at the age of three they are 
curious about the picture, and this leads them to reflect, as 
It does the older and wiser. The responses obtained by us 
are of three distinct kinds, each of which is characteristic of 
a different intellectual level. 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 15 

1. Enumeration. — These responses are the most element- 
ary. The child enumerates separately the persons and objects 
which he recognizes in the picture, without establishing any 
connection between them. He names only common objects. 
In the most elementary form the responses are limited to the 
following: "a gentleman," "a man," "a woman," "a papa," 
"a carriage," "a little child." Some very young children use 
the article the, "the child," "the gentleman," "the woman." 
Sometimes, instead of naming people, the child chooses ob- 
jects: "a bed," "a table." Notice it is the objects which are 
named and not the action. When shown the second picture 
a child of three will say: "a gentleman;" we never found 
one who said, "he sleeps," or one who mentioned the action 
or described the people. A child of three who would make 
such a remark would be much in advance of its age. At 
three years one is at the stage of recognition, or identification 
of objects; this is the important, fundamental work in the per- 
ception of the external world, in comparison with which all 
other processes of perception are only complementary. The 
degree of development of this fundamental process of identi- 
fication shows itself in different ways ; it is revealed by simple 
addition; the number of objects named increases; instead of 
one — two, three or four are named. When several are men- 
tioned, the question of order arises. Most often with our 
three pictures the children mentioned the people first; but 
there were exceptions to this rule, and sometimes inanimate 
objects were first chosen. Thus, for the third picture : "two 
tables, a chair, a bed, a man," for the second picture : "a man, 
a woman, a bench/' for the first: "a wagon, a gentleman, a 
bucket, a basket." Sometimes a curious error is produced 
by suggestion when using the first picture ; noticing the wagon, 
the child says : "a wagon, a horse." 

In a third variety, scarcely superior to the preceding, the 
objects are not named separately, but are related, in a very 
feeble manner it is true, by the conjunctions, and, with or 
and then. "A gentleman and a lady," "a wagon, and then a 
gentleman," "a gentleman with a lady." 



16 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

This type of response by enumeration is sometimes met 
with in older children who are retarded; it therefore is dis- 
tinctly characteristic; there is a persistence of the form of 
enumeration, but it is used in conjunction with a large num- 
ber of words, while the enumeration of a young and normal 
child is, on the contrary, very brief. This difference is ex- 
plained by the fact that the retarded child of eleven years who 
is still at the mental level of a child of six or seven years, 
has the advantage over the latter of a much longer experi- 
ence ; having lived longer, he possesses a larger vocabulary. 
Example: Mad. . . .a child of ten and a half who has an intel- 
lectual development of seven years (we explain later how we 
fix the intellectual level with such precision) gave us the fol- 
lowing enumeration in reference to the first picture: / see 
an old man, and then a child, there is a flood, there is water, 
a wagon, a basket, a brush, a pail, two wheels, a carpet. An- 
other example of fluent enumeration, still more characteristic, 
is found in the following response of Lau...., child of thir- 
teen years, four years retarded intellectually : A gentleman, a 
zvagon, a child, a pail, a basket; behind, a piece of wood; he- 
hind, some rocks. 

In all cases the most frequent type of response is cred- 
ited. 

2. Description, This is the level of seven years, while 
the response by enumeration corresponds to the level of three 
years. The difference is great. Here the characteristics of 
the people and the nature of the objects are mentioned; more- 
over, attention is called to their relations; with the result 
that phrases are substituted for simple words. 

Print 1 : There is a man and a little boy, who are pulling 
a wagon. 

Print 2: A man and then a woman, who are asleep on a 
bench. 

Print 3 : There is a man standing on his bed to look out 
of the window. A man looking at himself in the glass. 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 17 

3. Merpretation. The meaning of the picture or the 
nature of the people is told either by a brief word or by an 
explanatory remark, and often there is even an emotional 
note, of sadness or of sympathy ; it is possible that this emo- 
tional note exists with children who make a more simple re- 
sponse, but they are unable to express it. We call these re- 
sponses interpretations, because they go beyond the visual 
impression; there is a real effort to explain the situation de- 
picted. Examples : 

Print 1 : A rag picker. — A poor man moving. — There are 
some people moving zmthout paying the rent.— There is a man 
in trouble. 

Print 2: They are in want. — A miserable creature. — They 
are poor creatures sitting on a bench, and they have no home to 
sleep in. — It is night, they are poor and needy. 

Print 3: A prisoner. — That represents a prisoner, a man 
who is vn prison, who climbs on his pallet to look through the 
prison window which is barred. 

If the words moving, miserable and prisoner are used 
in the descriptions, it is safe to conclude that the pictures 
have been interpreted. The hierarchy which we have intro- 
duced in classifying our responses can not be defended phil- 
osophically. An observer, hostile to all theory, would claim 
that descriptions are superior to interpretations because they 
are less subject to error; they state exact facts, adding noth- 
ing, while interpretation is conjecture, and may be purely 
fanciful. "Hypotheses non fingo," such a critic will say. 
Such discussions will arise. The point which we have made 
as a result of our studies with children, certainly merits use 
as an argument in the debate. As only the older children use 
interpretation we conclude that a higher intellectual level is 
necessary for its production. But the question is a compli- 
cated one ; it is necessary not only to take into account the in- 
tellectual level, but also the possible deviations and errors 
peculiar to the same level. We recall having shown our pic- 



18 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

tures to an adult, known to be rather foolish. He made 
many interpretations, but most peculiar ones. For example, 
the first print inspired the following response: It is a scene 
taking place in the month of February. Let us analyze this 
conjecture. It is evidently an interpretation, but an alto- 
gether gratuitous one, which it is impossible either to confirm 
or to refute. The scene could just as well be placed in Octo- 
ber, November, December, January or March. Why, then, 
this precision, which is at the same time useless and unjusti- 
fiable? This response is an interpretation, and in our classi- 
fication it is superior to the descriptive response of a child of 
seven years; but in addition it betrays a lack of judgment; 
this lack of judgment is independent of the hierarchy of re- 
sponses. 

IV. Gives family name. — We now ask for a piece of in- 
formation which a child of three certainly should possess ; its 
family name. All children of this age know their first names, 
that goes without saying, or the pet name by which they are 
usually called ; but the family name is not so familiar. How- 
ever, they are expected to know it at school, and at the "Ma- 
ternelle" they are habitually called by their family name. 

The child is asked: "What is your name?" If he only 
gives his first name, the last is insisted on. "Roger? And 
then? And then what? etc." 

It sometimes happens that the child gives a name differ- 
ent from the one under which he has been entered. This often 
happens with illegitimate children, and also when a child's 
mother has had several husbands and changed the child's 
name with her own. 

If a child fails to give his family name, he is asked what 
his mother's name is. But this question is too difficult for 
three years, and the answer: "Her name is Mamma," cannot 
be considered a bad response for this age. 

V. Repeats a sentence of six syllables. — After the com- 
prehension of words, the next step in the development of 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 19 

language is not, as one might think, the verbal expression of 
thought, the naming of desired objects, but a repetition of 
words heard. It is easier, apparently, to echo a word than 
to use it independently— to pass from an idea to a word. We 
have observed this to be the fact with both imbeciles and nor- 
mal children. A child of three, if he will make the effort, 
can easily repeat a word or a phrase; it is sometimes difficult, 
however, to decide whether the repetition is correct, because 
such young children have a natural defect of pronunciation 
which we will call simply a vagueness, a baffling quality; 
this is produced by a stumbling over the words and by their 
incomplete production. This vagueness is not an actual de- 
fect of pronunciation, due to anatomical or functional defect 
of the speech organs; it is simply a lack of skill; therefore, 
this vagueness must be taken into consideration in the diag- 
nosis of the intelligence. On closer study we find that this 
awkwardness, this lack of skill, is not limited to articulation, 
but appears also in the choice of words and in the formation 
of sentences ; for the adult forms are substituted more child- 
ish ones.* 

For this test the following sentences are used, which have 
been chosen with the intention of using words very easy to 
understand : 

/ am cold and hungry. (6 syllables.) 

My name is Gaston Oh, the naughty dog. (lo syl- 
lables.) 

Let us go for a long zvalk Give me the pretty little 

bonnet. (i6 syllables.) 

These sentences should be given expressively. No error 
is allowed in the repetition. If the child is timid and remains 
silent, shorter sentences should be used; we use the fol- 
lowing: 



*TRANSLATOR'S N OTE.— The examples in the text are omitted 
here because they are applicable only to the French language. Ana- 
logous mistakes made by American children are the confusion of the 
gender and number of pronouns and misplaced prepositions. 



20 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

Papa. (2 syllables.) 

Hat. Pair of shoes. (4 syllables.) 

/ am cold and hungry. (6 syllables.) 

/ have a handkerchief with me. (8 syllables.) 

My name is Gaston. Oh, the naughty dog. (10 syllables.) 

It rains in the garden. John has finished his task. (12 syl- 
lables.) 

We are enjoying ourselves greatly. I have caught a mouse. 
(14 syllables.) 

Let us go for a long walk. Give me the pretty little bon- 
net. (16 syllables.) 

Charlotte has just torn her new dress. I have given two, 
cents to that beggar. (18 syllables.) 

It is not mecessary to hurt the birds. It is night, all the 
world rests in sleep. (20 syllables.) 

A child of three can repeat a sentence of six syllables; 
it cannot repeat one of ten. 

CHILDREN OF FOUR YEARS, 

I. Gives own sex. — "Are you a little boy or a little girl?'' 
This is the very simple question which we use. Three-year- 
old children do not all succeed in answering it. The correct 
response is: "A little boy" or "A little girl." Sometimes the 
child merely says yes or no. It is then necessary to ask two 
distinct questions: "Are you a little boy?" "Are you a little 
girl?" It takes very little to confuse at this age. 

Children of three years may fail, but a normal child of 
four always answers this question of sex correctly. How- 
ever, we expect a great change in the mental state to take 
place between the third and the fourth year. 

II. Names key, knife, penny. — Another test of spoken 
language, but differing from the language suggested by pic- 
tures; it is much more difficult. In a picture the child chooses 
what he wishes to name, and names those objects which he 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 21 

recognizes ; here we choose the object ; that is, we force him 
to name some one object and no other. These are differences 
which on a priori judgment seem insignificant; but in reaUty 
they are great. The proof is that the majority of children of 
three years succeed with the picture test and fail when asked 
to name the objects. It is true that the objects are a little 
less familiar than men and women, for which children show 
a preference in the picture test. The child is shown success- 
ively three familiar objects — a key, a closed knife and a cent — 
and is asked: "What is that? What is it called?" The key 
is properly named, sometimes with a defective pronunciation. 
The penknife is usually called a knife, and the penny, pennies. 
Such little errors are excused, but it is necessary that the 
names of the objects be known. 

In our choice of objects we are guided by the fact that 
all experimenters are likely to have a penknife, a key, and a 
penny about them, and our endeavor is to use as little special 
apparatus as possible. 

III. Repeats three digits. — This test is conducted in the 
same manner as that calling for the repetition of two digits. 
No further remarks are necessary. 

IV. Compares two lines. — Here are some tests which 
present unexpected difficulties. An imbecile who understands 
when one says: "Go and open the door," when the words are 
not supplemented by either a gesture or a glance in the right 
direction, is unable to compare two lines in regard to their 
length. Does he see that the two lines are of unequal length? 
It is quite possible. If it were two biscuits, would he take 
the longer or the shorter? That is yet to be determined. But 
he does not comprehend the words: "the longer;" he does 
not understand that he is asked to compare two lines, and, 
pointing at random, he foolishly puts his finger on the space 
beWeen the two lines. The child of three years does the 
same thing. Not until its fourth year does a normal child 
succeed with this test. 



22 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

The test is conducted as follows : Two lines, one 5 centi- 
meters in length, and one 6, are drawn with ink on white 
paper; they are parallel and separated by a distance of three 
centimeters. The lines are shown to the child: "You see 
these lines. Tell me which is the longer." No hesitation is 
allowed. Sometimes the child puts its finger between the 
two lines. That is sufficient, unless the child corrects himself, 
for any hesitation is considered a failure. The test is a short 
one, easy to perform and easy to interpret. 

CHILDREN OF FIVE YEARS. 

I. Compares two weights. — This is a comparison similar 
to that of the lines; but one judges the lines at a glance, while 
it is necessary to take the boxes in the hand and heft them ; 
often they are taken in the same hand and compared success- 
ively. Conclusion : Very few children younger than five suc- 
ceed with this test, while those of four succeed in comparing 
the length of the lines. 

Four boxes are used, the same in appearance and volume, 
and weighing respectively 3 grams and 12 grams ; 6 grams and 
15 grams. First, the two boxes of 3 and 12 grams are used. 
They are placed on the table before the child, with a distance 
of 5 or 6 centimeters between them. The child is asked : "You 
see these boxes. Tell me which is the heavier." The correct 
response consists in taking the boxes and hefting them one 
after the other in the same hand, or at the same time in two 
hands, and pointing out the box which weighs 12 grams. To 
make sure that the choice is not the result of chance, the two 
boxes of 6 and 15 grams are then presented; then the first 
two boxes are again used and the results compared. If there 
remains the least doubt, repeat the test. A very young child 
behaves differently. When asked the question, he responds 
at once by pointing, quite at random, at a box, without think- 
ing of weighing it. We overlook this naive error, which may 
sometimes be explained by thoughtlessness, and sometimes 
by suggestibility or a desire to please us, and we say to the 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 23 

child: "No, that is not the way. You must take the boxes 
in your hands and weigh them." This supplementary instruc- 
tion is sufficient to orient most subjects; so much the worse 
for the others. We have observed curiously the errors made 
by these last. Here are some of them : To lift only one box 
and declare it to be the heavier; to place the two boxes side 
by side in the same hand and declare that one is the heavier ; 
in this case the weighing is much more difficult without being 
impossible; finally, to place them one on top of the other in 
the same hand. This is still more defective as a method of 
weighing; however, it is still possible to detect the difiference 
in weight. 

This test includes two quite distinct operations ; one con- 
sists in understanding that the weights of the two boxes are 
to be compared, and the consequent act of comparing them ; 
the other consists in appreciating the difference in the two 
weights. The first operation is much more difficult than the 
second; one can even say that it depends on the general in- 
telligence and presupposes a high intellectual level, while the 
second depends on the much more simple faculty of feeling 
a difference in weight, and exists at a much lower intellectual 
level, perhaps one of only two years; this is proven by the 
fact that when a child, in spite of all possible explanations, 
fails to take the weights and compare them, it is often suffi- 
cient to place the weights one in each hand and ask him 
which is the heavier to secure from him the correct gesture. 
The awkwardness with which a child takes the weights, 
hefts them and compares them, and the surety with which 
he shows that he feels the difference in weight, is always an 
interesting contrast. 

II. Copies a square. — This is the first time that we have 
put a penholder into the child's hand. 

A square with a diameter of from 3 to 4 centimeters is 
drawn with ink, and the child is asked to reproduce it, using 
pen and ink. The use of pen and ink increases the difficulty 
of the task and a pencil must not be substituted. Young sub- 



24 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

jects reduce the size of the figure; this is of little importance 
if it is recognizable. We give (Fig. 4 of the Appendix) 
some specimens of reproduction which we consider as toler- 
able (1, 2, 3) and other reproductions which seem to us so 
defective that they constitute a failure (4, 5, 6). 

III. Repeats sentences of ten syllables. See above. 

IV. Counts four pennies. — The objection is made that 
enumeration is a test of scholarship which implies instruc- 
tion rather than intelligence. The objection is just; but 
where is the being so deprived of tutelage that no one has 
ever taught him to count? We have studied many imbeciles 
in the asylums ; all those who have sufficient intelligence to 
count have learned to do so. In spite of the compulsory 
education laws, there still remain many illiterate people; it 
is said that there are more than five per cent, among the 
soldiers, but has one ever met an individual who has never 
learned to count if his intelligence permitted it? Such an 
one would be very rare. 

The study of the act of counting is very complicated, and 
it will be seen by what follows that this little test, which is 
of great practical importance, appears many times in our 
Scale. To be able to count it is necessary to know many 
things; first, it is necessary to be able to recite the numbers 
in serial order correctly; it is necessary, also, to be able to 
apply each number to a different object. We have not used 
as a test the simple recitation of the figures because this is 
an affair of memory; we prefer the act of counting, which 
presupposes some judgment. We ask the child to count four 
pennies. 

Four penn^s are placed on the table ; they are placed in 
a row, not in a pile. The experimenter says : "See these pen- 
nies. Count them. Tell me how many there are." Some 
children, without counting, answer at once, giving any num- 
ber at random. Whether it be correct or not, such answer 
should not be noted. The child must be made to count them. 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 25 

pointing with his finger. Any error constitutes a failure. 
At three years a child cannot count four pennies; at four 
years nearly half the children succeed; at five years only re- 
tarded children fail. It is truly a test for five years. 

V. Game of patience with two pieces. — This is a game 
demanding an arrangement, a combining of pieces, which 
pleases children; they often amuse themselves at school by 
constructing objects with cubes. It is a game and at the same 
time a work for the intelligence, operating with the given 
material, some sensations and some movements. If the oper- 
ation is analyzed, it is found to consist of the following ele- 
ments : 1. To keep in mind the end to be attained, that is 
to say, the figure to be formed ; it is necessary to comprehend 
this end; it is necessary also to think about it, not to lose 
sight of it. 2. To try different combinations, under the influ- 
ence of this directing idea, which often guides the efforts of 
the child, though he be unconscious of the fact. 3. To judge 
the formed combination, compare it with the model, and de- 
cide whether it is the correct one. 

I t is at once seen that the game of patience can be 
complicated so that its difficulty may be varied at will. There 
are some games which a child of five can solve, and others 
which try the skill of an adult. We commenced by choosing 
a very difficult game, and we think that it will be of interest 
to explain why we abandoned it; it was because success in it 
is too much a matter of chance. If in a game consisting of 
a dozen pieces of card, the subject was fortunate enough to 
pick up at once two or three cards which belonged together, 
the completion of the task would be easy ; on the other hand, 
were he not so fortunate, the problem would be much more 
difficult. It also happens that the number of successes are 
altogether independent of age. This objection, which obtains 
with some kinds of tests, led us to give up this type of game. 

That which we finally adopted is much more simple, 
it consists of two pieces only and is adapted to children of 
five years. 



26 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

An oblong card is cut along the diagonal, making two 
triangular pieces. An intact card is placed on the table, 
and by its side, nearer to the child are placed the two trian- 
gular pieces, arranged so that the two hypotheni form a right 
angle, and we say to the child : "Put these two pieces to- 
gether, so as to make something like this." {This refers to the 
intact card which lies before him.) 

Children of four years do not succeed in forming the 
oblong. Only one-third are successful. As for the others, 
they do not understand what is required, and they move the 
cards about at random ; fail to touch them at all ; put them 
together incorrectly ; place them side by side but not facing 
each other ; cover one by the other ; or finally form a figure which 
has nothing in common with the model. 

At five years there is a decided progress; we found that 
scarcely one child in twelve failed. The others performed 
the task well. 

Some precautions must be taken with this test. We 
point out the three following: 1. Some little ones do not 
wish to take the trouble to move the cards or even to touch 
them. It is then necessary, without giving any precise sug- 
gestions, to scold them a little in order to arouse them from 
their apathy. They do not succeed beyond those who fail 
to bring two cards together, in whatever form, or those who 
cover one piece by the other. 2. In this test one should try to 
prevent the child from turning one of the cards over when he 
is bringing them together, for if he does it will be impossible 
to form a figure like the model. If he inadvertently turns 
the card and is unconscious of it, it is permissible to begin 
again, or to consider the test passed if the two cards are so 
placed that their longest sides are in juxtaposition. 3. When 
the child makes a combination he is apt to stop and turn to the 
examiner for an assurance that it is correct or otherwise. 
Our attitude towards his work then determines whether he 
will remain content with it or make another effort. It is 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 27 

essential that no opinion be expressed ; that we wait, and wait 
in silence. 

CHILDREN OF SIX YEARS. 

I. Distinguishes between morning and evening. — The 
perception of time is a slow development with a child; for 
a long time yesterday and tomorrow are confused. 
The distinction of our test is brought out by the following 
question: "Is it morning or afternoon now?'^ Some chil- 
dren give a chance answer, others simply say "yes" ; not until 
the age of six is a child absolutely sure whether it is morning 
or afternoon. Before reaching this age they can often tell, 
however, whether they have or have not eaten their mid-day 
meal. 

Apropos of this finding, our readers will doubtless make 
a remark which they will often repeat in reading the tests 
which follow; it is that children are much less advanced, 
much less intelligent than they are thought to be. We answer 
that an examination such as ours, a rapid one which takes the 
child by surprise and obliges him to tell and tell immediately, 
what he knows, tends toward a low grading of the child. But 
even taking this into account the preceding observation still 
holds. One expects, we ourselves expected, more brilliant 
results. We would have judged that children could distin- 
guish between morning and afternoon long before the age of 
six. It is a distinction which appears so easy! Think of 
the fact that six-year-old children are the oldest in the "ma- 
temelles" schools. Recall that the programs of these schools 
provide for the teaching of history and of geography ; "the 
principal irregularities of the earth's surface, brief biographies 
from national history," read the rules of the schools "mater- 
nelles" of the department of the Seine. Is it not rather ridicu- 
lous to talk about national history to children who cannot 
yet distinguish between morning and afternoon ? 

II. Defines in terms of use. — Thus far the verbal re- 
sponses required from the little ones have all been short ; a 



28 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

word or two sufficed. Now we are about to ask for a phrase, 
for an object can not be defined without forming one. The 
definition is not solely an exercise and test for language; it 
serves to show us the idea which a child has formed of an 
object, the manner in which he has conceived it, the point 
of view which is to him the most interesting. 

The child is asked successively : "What is 

1 — a fork? 2 — a table? 3 — a chair? A — a horse? 5 — a 
mamma?" These objects have been chosen from many because 
we have found that they lend themselves to a useful classifi- 
cation of responses. 

It is not easy to perform the test with very young 
children. They often respond by stubborn silence. We have 
said to them in vain : "You know well what a table is, a 
chair, you have used a fork," and concluded a little rashly, 
that knowing these objects they should be able to tell what 
they are ; this does not always succeed in breaking their si- 
lence ; some point to a nearby table and say, "It is that." 

If our purpose was a study in general psychology a good 
classification of responses could be made. For the purpose 
of diagnosis we have only three distinctions to establish : 

1. — Silence, simple repetition, designation by gesture. We 
have just given an example of designation by gesture. As 
to repetition, it is self explanatory ; it consists in repeating the 
given word. "What is a fork?" — "It is a fork." Sometimes 
the child takes it into his head that in this way he will avoid 
all difficulties, one can be certain that he will use it for the 
whole series of definitions; he has found a path of least re- 
sistance and he is faithful to it. There is not the least spirit 
of malice. The child believes that he has responded seriously 
and suitably to the questions asked him, and he even feels 
quite pleased with himself. Do not undeceive him. With a 
perfect optimism say to him : "That is very good," and mark 
the result as being a complete absence of response. This re- 
sult is not extraordinary in psychological experimentation; for 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 29 

example in the experiments on the association of ideas with 
young children and defectives the subjects frequently simply 
repeat the stimulus word. 

2. — Definition in terms of use only. — Examples : Horse, 
it is to pull carriages, — it is to run, it is to sit on. The frequent 
visits to the butcher shops where horse or mule meat is sold, 
which are customary among the class of people to which our 
children belong, explain the following response : "Horse, it is to 
eat.'' We asked the child whether he ate the meat of the horse, 
and he said, "Yes." Fork, it is to eat — to eat with. Table, it 
is to eat on — or, a table is used to eat on; it is the table where 
the plates are put, — it is where we eat. Chair, it is for us to 
sit on, — it is to sit on, — it is used to sit an, — it is that which zve 
sit on. Mamma, she is to take care of little children, — she is to 
kiss, — she sends on errands, — she cooks the food. 

All these answers are clearly infantile, not only in their 
incorrect form, but also in their conciseness, and finally in 
the state of mind which they reveal; scarcely any children 
of seven years are exclusively utilitarian in their definitions. 

3. — Definition in terms superior to use. These are so 
varied in form that it is impossible to cite all the varieties; 
but this is unnecessary for the essential point is not the char- 
acter of these definitions, but the fact that they differ from 
the definitions in terms of use. The distinction is made diffi- 
cult by certain responses in which the subject is chiefly con- 
cerned about the use of the object but describes it in less 
infantile terms than those quoted above. Examples : Table 
— It is an object used for eating, or it is an instrunie(nt for 
eating; it is a utensil for eating; it is a piece of furniture fot*^ 
eating. Horse — It is an animal which pulls carriages. Mam- 
ma — She is a woman who cooks the food; she is a woman 
who takes care of the children. The use of the expressions: 
It is an object, it is an animal, it is an instrument, it is a thing, 
indicate that the definition is less infantile. Definitions 
learned at school are also given, they are curious in their 



30 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

brevity; a table, it is a thing; a horse, it is an animal, it is a 
domestic animal; a mamma, she is a person; she is a woman. 
In other cases children try to describe the object; a fork is a 
little fork with four points; a table, it is a board with four 
feet; a horse, that has four legs; a horse that runs, that bites, 
etc. Or still another series given by a child of nine years : 
A fork has four prongs, — a table has four legs, — a chair has 
four legs, — a horse has four feet, — a mamma has tzvo hands 
and two feet. Older children think of the character of the 
object and of what it is composed : A fork is made of copper; a 
fork is a white metal; a table, it is wooden; a chair, it is some 
pieces of wood and some straw; it is of waxed wood; a horse, 
it is meat, etc. Another point of view is the grammatical : 
Table is of the feminine gender, chair also; horse is of the 
mascidine gender. We think it useless to give examples of 
more intelligent responses, because this test occurs in our 
scale at the ages of six and nine. The intellectual develop- 
ment of these two ages can be distinguished by the kind of 
definition give by the child. The value of the definitions is 
judged by the character of the majority of the definitions. 
Five are required of each child. We note the character of 
responses common to three of them. 

Half of the children of four years of age define in terms 
of use only ; the proportion is a little greater for the five-year- 
old group ; and practically all of the six-year-old children use 
this form. We have found that not until the ninth year are 
the majority of definitions given in terms superior to use. 

III. Copies a lozenge. — Hospital experience suggested 
this test. We were surprised to find imbeciles who could 
copy a square and yet failed in the attempt to copy a lozenge. 
These figures are not very different in form, but the direction 
of the lines of the lozenge is much more difficult to reproduce. 
We found the same true of the children in the regular schools ; 
at five years of age a child can copy a square; not until six 
can he copy a lozenge; and even at seven one-fifth of the 
children fail. At six years one-half fail. In the appendix we 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 31 

give a drawing (Fig. 5) which contains examples of good 
copies (1, 2, 3) and of bad copies (4, 5, 6), so that all may- 
adopt the same criteria. 

IV. Counts 13 pennies. — The difficulty of counting is so 
much increased by the addition of objects that it is necessary 
to wait until the sixth year before requiring a child to 
count thirteen pennies. The thirteen pennies are placed in 
juxtaposition, not one upon another. The child is instructed 
to point to each with his finger and count aloud. It is neces- 
sary that the solution thirteen be given ; and sometimes this 
is not sufficient, when one feels certain that it is given by 
chance, or as the result of several errors. Three conditions 
are necessary to the successful solution of the test: 1. That 
the subject knows how to count to thirteen, and makes no 
mistake in the enumeration ; one can imagine the many errors 
possible in this process. 2. That the subject touch a piece 
and at the same time pronounce a number ; for the correspond- 
ence of the pointing and of the counting is often at fault. 
There are, for example, young children who name only one 
figure while touching, by two movements, two different pen- 
nies. As a rule, the hand moves more quickly than the 
speech. 3, That the subject forgets no piece and that he 
counts no piece twice. This last error, which can be avoided 
only by employing some method, can be committed even by 
adults. We have seen some children of six years who took 
the precaution to remove each penny as they counted it. This 
is the perfection of method ; these are the good traders. 

At seven years there are no failures. 

V. Compares faces from the aesthetic point of view. — It 
is incontestable that all young children have the sense of the 
beautiful, and that it can be brought out by presenting the 
problem in a simple form; for example, as a comparison, a 
choice between two faces, one of which is pretty, the other 
ugly; it is necessary that the contrast between the two faces 
be very great. This question is very interesting from the 



32 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

philosophic point of view, and clearly shows that there is 
no faculty of the adult which does not exist to some degree 
in the child. 

This is our method. We use six drawings (Fig. 6, of 
the Appendix) representing heads of women ; some are pretty, 
the others are ugly or even deformed; the faces are com- 
pared two at a time, and each time the child is asked : "Which 
is the prettier of these two faces?" The child must respond 
correctly all three times. Care has been taken to place the 
pretty face sometimes to the right, sometimes to the left, in 
order to avoid the possibility of a success due solely to the 
habit of pointing every time to a picture on the same side. 
It is very necessary to guard against this automatic tendency 
to go in the same direction ; it is very common with children. 
At six years children compare the three pairs of faces with 
ease ; at five they are not very successful, one-half only giv- 
ing at this age correct answers. 

CHILDREN OF SEVEN YEARS. 

I. Right hand, left ear. — Another notion gained through 
instruction, but so easily acquired that the lack of it is con- 
spicuous. The child is asked: "Show your right hand," and 
this done ; "Show your left ear." The last question is almost 
a trap, for having commenced by asking for the right hand, 
a tendency is created to show the right ear. 

Sometimes the child shows both hands ; or rather, he uses 
one hand to show the other, but the gesture is so obscure 
that one can not tell which is the hand indicated. The ques- 
tion is decided by telling the child to raise his right hand. 
The children may be divided into three categories according 
to their manner of response: 1. There are some who have 
absolutely no knowledge of left and right. They present the 
right hand because there is a tendency to use it rather than 
the left; then they touch the right ear. We will not pause 
to consider those who understand still less, do not know where 
their ear is. 2. There are those who have a notion of right 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 33 

and left, but they are not yet sure. They present the right 
hand and touch the right ear, then correcting themselves 
touch the left ear. 3. Finally, a third group is formed by 
those children who, without error and without hesitation, pre- 
sent the right hand and touch the left ear. We consider suc- 
cessful the children of the two last groups, those who hesitate 
and correct themselves as well as those who do not hesitate 
nor have to correct themselves. But it is important that the 
experimenter watches himself and gives no suggestion; it 
would be very natural to do so. It is evident that if, when 
the^ child touched his right ear, one said : "Are you sure of 
it?" or even looked disapproval of the gesture, the child would 
be led to touch the left ear, for, if it is not the one, it is the 
other. 

II. Describes a picture.— We have seen that at three, 
four and five years enumeration is the rule and description 
quite unusual. At six years a very small number of children, 
scarcely a sixth, try description. At seven years such prog- 
ress in language has been made that description has become 
quite general; there are very few exceptions, and this test 
shows the enormous advance from the point of view of lan- 
guage which takes place between six and seven years. 

III. Executes three commissions. — Among the people 
quite young children are sent on little errands to the stores, 
to buy milk, bread, to the butcher's more than all, and to 
bring home a bottle of wine. Physicians who frequent the 
clinics for retarded children recognize that these children, 
though they can be trusted to perform one commission, can 
not be given several at the same time. The mothers often tell 
the doctors of this interesting peculiarity. Here is the series 
of commissions which we give with the directions given with 
them: "Do you see this key? Go and put it on that chair, 
there" (pointing to the chair). "Then close the door. After 
that you will see a box on a chair near the door. Take the 
box and bring it to me. First, put the key on the chair; then 
close the door; then bring me the box. Do you understand? 



34 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

Now go!" Very often the child only performs two of the 
three commissions, or on reaching the door closes it on him- 
self. Some are satisfied with themselves and others realize 
that they have forgotten something and remain thoughtful. 
The test is passed successfully when all three commissions 
are executed spontaneously without the necessity of such help 
as, "Well, and now? You forget something, etc." It is evi- 
dent that the commissions may be varied a little to suit the 
surroundings. They should, however, always be simple and 
easily executed. Nothing that would intimidate the child 
should be asked. If the experimenter placed his hat on a 
chair, it would not do to use it in one of the commissions as 
an object to be moved, for many a child would not dare to 
touch it. 

IV.* Counts nine sous (3 single, 3 double). — On a cor- 
ner of the table are arranged side by side three single and 
three double sous. The subject is shown the money and 
directed : "Count that money and tell me how much is there." 
Some children do not touch the money ; it is necessary to 
find some way to induce them to count. The difficulty of the 
test lies in the mixing of the single and double sous. No 
error is allowed. The slightest error constitutes a failure ; 
and the child should not be allowed to repeat the test. The 
only precaution necessary is to arrange the money so that 
all the pieces are visible. The test takes from 5 to 10 sec- 
onds. If it takes longer, there is a strong probability of a 
failure. It is useless to wait 15 seconds. Children behave in 
three different ways: 1. They count exactly, in the follow- 
ing manner: 1-2-3-5-7-9; that is to say, they add 2 for each 
double sou. 2. They count exactly, but for the double sous 
they do not add by twos; they say: 1, 2, 3, — then 4 and 5 (for 



_ *TRANSLATOR'S NOTE.— As there Is no two-cent piece circu- 
lating in American currency, Dr. Goddard has substituted one and 
two-cent stamps for the single and double sous. The test seems to 
be an equivalent one, provided the experimenter makes sure that the 
child knows the value of the stamps before he gives the test question. 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 35 

the double sou), 6 and 7 (for the second double sou), 8 and 
9 (for the third). 3. They count the double sous as single 
sous. The last is a failure. At seven years there is already 
a great majority who succeed. All succeed at eight years. 
This is, then, rather a test of the transition period between 
the two ages. 

V. Names four colors. — Tests with colors can be indefi- 
nitely multiplied. We have chosen the fundamental colors, 
red, blue, green and yellow, and have omitted those the names 
of which are less familiar to children ; for example, violet and 
orange. The test is not of the perception and distinction of 
colors, but the naming of them, which is quite dififerent. Young 
children recognize, distinguish, and match the most delicate 
shades; they are quite equal to adults in color sense; it is 
the verbalization of this color perception, if one can so ex- 
press it, which is defective with children. 

Four pieces of paper, red, yellow, blue and green, respect- 
ively, and 6 by 2 centimeters in size (smaller pieces should 
not be used), are arranged on a piece of cardboard. Each 
color is pointed to in turn, and the child asked: "What is 
this color?" No error is excused. The least error is con- 
sidered a failure. This test takes about six seconds. 

CHILDREN OF EIGHT YEARS. 

I. Compares two remembered objects. — This is a valu- 
able test because it does not depend in the least on instruction, 
and brings into play the natural good sense of the subject. 
It consists in investigating whether the subject can, in think- 
ing of two objects, distinguish a difference between them; 
the perception of a difference is in fact the habitual and the 
most natural result of a comparison. We prepare for the test 
by talking to the child as follows : "You have seen butter- 
flies, you know what they are? — Yes. — And flies, you know 
them also? — Yes. — Are they alike, a fly and a butterfly? — 
No. — In what way are they not alike?" This is not expressed 
in the best style, but it has the advantage of being easily 



36 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

understood. Similar questions are asked about wood and 
glass, and paper and cardboard. We always begin by asking 
the subject whether he knows the objects in question, and 
whether he finds that the objects "are not alike." Then atten- 
tion is given to the response and above all to the value of the 
response. A mere naming of the object is considered insuffi- 
cient. The child is asked: "In what way are the cardboard 
and paper not alike?" If the child responds: the cardboard, 
it evidently proves that he has not understood. A bad re- 
sponse, though somewhat better than a mere repetition, is : 
A fly, it is a fly. More often the difference noted is one of 
size: The butterfly is larger, and the fly is smaller; the card- 
board is larger; the wood is larger. Often details are noted: 
The butterfly has the largest wings — the butterfly has whit^ 
wings — the butterfly is yellow — they are not the same color — 
the fly is black, the butterfly is many colored — it is that butter- 
flies fly on the flowers and flies fly on the food — paper is soft, 
cardboard is harder — cardboard does not tear — wood does not 
break — wood is not transparent — glass is used for windows, and 
wood is used to make floors. 

For success, two at least of the three comparisons must 
be correctly given. To be considered correct the difference 
must be exactly given. It often happens that having found a 
differential character for the first pair, the subject repeats it 
for the other two ; having said that the butterfly is larger, 
the repetition of this for the cardboard and the wood is not 
a sufficiently good response. It often takes a child as long as 
a minute to respond ; so much the worse if at the end of this 
time the response is incorrect. At six years one-third of the 
children make the correct comparison ; at seven, almost all ; 
at eight, all. 

It is very difficult to distinguish between the intellectual 
levels of seven and eight years, and we use some tests de- 
pending upon instruction, introducing them because they are 
also valuable as tests of intelligence. 

II. Counts from 20 to 0. — This is partly a test of school 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 37 

knowledge; one must have learned to count to be able to re- 
verse the process. We say to the subject: "Will you count 
from 20 to 0, descending?" If he does not understand, we 
add : "Count this way : 20, 19, 18 — " but we do not proceed 
any further. Some children do not know how to count in 
this way and will not try. Others, obstinately, in spite of the 
instructions, count in the usual way either at once or after 
having made an effort to count as requested : 20, 19, 18, 17, 
19, 20, 21, 22, 23, etc. Others understand very well in what 
way they are asked to count, but they avoid doing so by 
going back and counting up again to find each figure. Thus, 
being at 15, they count rapidly 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., as far as 15, 
and find in this way that 14 precedes 15. The method is be- 
trayed by the words murmured by the subject, and by the time 
consumed in thinking of each succeeding number. All the re- 
sponses so far described are considered failures. To be con- 
sidered correct the process of counting must not take more 
than twenty seconds, and there must be no more than one 
error (omission or inversion). 

III. Indicates omissions in pictures. — Four pictures are 
shown successively (Fig. 7, Appendix) ; in one an eye is lack- 
ing, in one the nose, in one the mouth, in one the arms. The 
child is asked each time: "What is missing in this picture?" 
Often the child does not answer, or if he does, makes some 
incorrect remark. For the first picture which represents a 
head he will say, for example, that the neck is missing, or 
the stomach, or the ears, or even the legs or the feet; and 
having thought of this response, he does not fail to repeat it 
for all the other pictures (automatism and repetition). All 
these statements are true, but they do not fulfill the require- 
ments of the test — to show what the picture lacks to make 
it complete. Three correct answers are required. 

IV. Gives the day and date. — Four facts are required 
in answer to this question: the day of the week, the month, 
the day of the month, and the year. In this connection we 
wish to make a remark : We found that in the schools "ma- 



38 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

ternelle" a language lesson is given each day at the opening 
of school, in which the day and date are taught. The children 
are told the day, date and year, and then made to repeat it. 
However, not one child in the school was able to give us the 
complete information, nor one the name of the year alone ; 
for the month many answers were given, January, even 
when it was in reality February 8th. Referring to our Scale, 
it will be seen that the complete idea is not attained until the 
age of eight. The great majority of children do not possess 
it until they reach this age. These findings lead us unexpect- 
edly to an interesting conclusion on precocious teaching. The 
aim of instruction should be to aid the natural course of de- 
velopment of the child by hastening it a little ; but it is a vain 
effort that gives it information three or four years beyond 
its level. In the present case this is demonstrated by the 
ignorance of these children of five or six years in regard to 
the facts taught them, facts that boys of eight are juct able 
to retain. 

An error of three or four days is allowed in the day of 
the month. A very intelligent person might think it the 17th 
of February when it is in fact the 14th., but he would scarcely 
make a mistake in the day, still less in the month, and never, 
unless he be suddenly amnesic, in the year. It is a curious 
fact that children fail most often to give the year. They give 
no year, they remain silent, for they do not know it. Perhaps 
a year is for them so great a lapse of time that they can form 
no idea of it. Then a glance at a calendar is sufficient to 
learn the day of the week and month, but not the year, which 
everyone is supposed to know. School calendars should make 
very conspicuous the number of the year. 

V. Repeats five digits. — The method is described above. 
Three digits are used at four years; it is necessary to post- 
pone increasing the number to five until we reach seven-year- 
old children, and still but three-quarters pass the test. 

CHILDREN OF NINE YEARS. 

1. Gives change from 20 sous. — This is a test which 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 39 

presupposes some little instruction ; but it has so great a prac- 
tical value that we use it.* We think it well to make the test 
under the guise of a game; we thus amuse the child and put 
him at his ease. Some money is spread out on the table; the 
nine pieces of current money (0 fr. 05 — fr. 10 — fr. 25 — fr. 
50 — 1 fr. — 2 fr. — 5 fr. — 10 fr. — 20 fr.) — and in addition a sum 
of fr. 65 ; fr. 30 in fr. 10 pieces and the rest in fr. 05 
pieces. We say to the subject: 'Would you like to play 
store with me? You be the storekeeper." Then show him 
the money : "Here is the money which you will use to make 
change for your customers." Then, showing him some boxes: 
"These are the articles which you will sell. They are boxes. 
I will buy this box. I will pay you four sous for it. Would 
3^ou like to play?" The subject always consents, smilingly; 
the proposal pleases him. We then hand him a 1 fr. piece, 
saying: "I wish to spend four sous. Now, you give me the 
change." Then the hand is held out to receive the money. 
The only correct response is the following: The subject takes 
from the money fr. 80, offering it as change. Sometimes 
the child responds, "I should give you 16 sous," but does 
not give the exact number, giving instead 15 or 17 perhaps; 
this is counted an error. Of course, still graver mistakes, 
such as returning 2 fr. or 4 fr., are also considered failures. 
We had one subject, a school child of ten years of age, give 
us back 35 fr. ; this, however, is quite exceptional. It will be 
noticed that in this simple act of making change many varia- 
tions occur. The quickest and most adroit at once pick out 
a 10 sou piece and add to it 6 sous. Sometimes, like real 
storekeepers, they say, "4 sous and 10, that makes 14 sous, 
plus 6 sous, that makes 20 sous ;" sometimes they count by 
centimes. These are the bright ones. The others follow the 
suggestion of the 13 sous on the table; they begin by gath- 



*TRANSLATOR'S NOTE.— As nearly an equivalent a test as 
can be made with United States Money is the problem of giving change 
from a quarter when four cents are spent. The change pile should 
consist of ten pennies, two nickels, two dimes, one quarter, one half 
dollar. 



40 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

ering up all the sous and counting them; then they are con- 
fused because this does not give them the necessary sum ; 
they are obliged to begin again and take away some of the 
sous, replacing them by either a 10 sou or a 5 sou piece. The 
most ignorant, it seems, are attracted by the sous, which they 
can count most easily; one must be used to handling money 
to take at once the 10 sou piece, then the 5 sou, and finally 
the 1 sou. There are shades of difference in the perform- 
ance of this test of which our method takes no account. Is 
the change given equal or not to fr. 80? That is all it notes. 
At most, in analyzing the results, one can call an error of 
one sou slight and an error of five sous great. 

At seven years scarcely any children succeed in giving 
the correct amount of change when trying to take four sous 
from twenty sous. At eight years a good third succeed. At 
nine years they all succeed. 

II. Defines in terms superior to use. — This test is ex- 
plained above. At seven and at eight years one-half of the 
children give definitions of this kind. At nine years they 
all do. 

III.* Recognizes all the pieces of our money. — These are 
the following: fr. 05—0 fr. 10—0 fr. 25—0 fr. 50—1 fr.— 
2 fr.— 5 fr.— 10 fr.— 20 fr. 

The greatest difficulty is distinguishing between the 1 fr. 
and 2 fr. pieces, and the 10 and 20 fr. pieces. The various 
pieces are all placed on the table, and as each is pointed to 
in succession, the subject names it without touching it. Care 
should be taken not to show in immediate succession the 1 fr. 
and 2 fr. pieces or the 10 fr. and 20 fr. pieces. 

We propose the following order : fr. 10 — 2 fr. — 10 fr. — 
fr. 50—20 fr.— 1 fr.— 5 fr.— fr. 25. 



*TRANSLATOR'S NOTE.— For the French coins we substitute 
in United States Money — a penny, a nickel, a dime, a quarter, a half 
dollar, a dollar, a two-dollar bill, a five-dollar bill and a ten- 
dollar bill. 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 4l 

The coins should always be turned so that the child may 
see the effigy. 

Frequently a child calls a 1 fr. piece 2 fr. and a 10 fr. 
piece 20 fr., or vice versa. These are due to slight confusion. 
Absurdities consist in inventing new pieces — 3 fr., for ex- 
ample, or 15 sous. A curious error made occasionally is the 
confusion of 10 and 5 fr. pieces. The test should not last 
longer than 40 seconds. Finally, sometimes one suspects that 
an error is merely a chance one. One of our children, aged 
twelve, named all the coins readily excepting the 5 fr. piece, 
which he called 10 fr. We made no sign, but some time after- 
ward we took the trouble to have him name again all the coins on 
the table. He repeated his error, and therefore failed. We 
cite this example to show that the results must not be taken 
automatically. It often happens that one suspects a chance 
error after later responses are given; it is then necessary to 
repeat the test and watch for a repetition of the error. In other 
terms, in spite of the system of marking which we have de- 
vised, we believe that the experimenter must judge of the 
responses which are made. Our method is not an automatic 
weighing machine, such as the scales of the railroad stations, 
which print an individual's weight entirely unaided. 

IV. Enumerates the months.— The subject should name 
the months in 15 seconds without omission or inversion. We, 
however, allow the error of one omission or one inversion. 

V. Understands easy questions. — We give the text of 
the questions and some good and bad responses : 

1< — What would you do if you missed a train f Correct 
answers: Wait for another train. — Take the next. Incorrect 
answers : / shoidd try not to miss it. — Run after it. — Go home 
again. — Buy a ticket. 

2. — What would you do if one of your playmates shoidd 
hit you without meaning to do sof Correct answers: Do noth- 
ing to him. — Excuse him. — Pardon him. — Tell him to be more 
careful another time. Incorrect answers, which show that the 



42 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

reservation, "without meaning to do so," has not been under- 
stood : Tell the teacher. — Have revenge. — Punish him. 

3. — What would you do if you broke something belonging 
to someone elsef Correct answers: Pay for it. — Ask to he ex- 
cused. — Replace it. — Confess it. Incorrect answers are gener- 
ally unintelligible : / would have to make it pay. — / would have 
to cry. — Go to the commissary. 

It will be noticed that these three questions are easily 
understood and present no difficulties of vocabulary. It. some- 
times happens that children of only six answer them satis- 
factorily, but this is rare. At seven and eight years one-half 
of the children answer correctly; at nine years, three-quar- 
ters ; at ten years, all. The test is considered passed correctly 
if two of the three questions are answered satisfactorily. 

CHILDREN OF TEN YEARS. 

I. Arranges five weights. — An excellent test which pre- 
supposes no schooling or acquired knowledge, and expresses 
intelligence in its most natural form ; but it is a special intel- 
ligence, a sensorial intelligence, not at all verbal ; and some 
children who use words easily fail to arrange the weights. 

For this test we use five little pasteboard boxes, of identi- 
cal size and color and indistinguishable one from the other 
by the eye alone. These are loaded, the filling being wrapped 
in cotton, and weigh respectivly 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15 grams. 
Each experimenter can construct his own. All that is required 
is a letter-scale and five small match boxes, the weights of 
which are varied by removing matches or adding sous ; a set 
of boxes weighing 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 grams can easily be 
made in this way, and may be substituted for our series. 

The five boxes are placed in a pile before the subject. 
"We say to him: "The boxes which you see here do not 
all weigh the same. Some of them are heavy and some are 
light. Place the heaviest one here, and at its side the one 
which is a little less heavy, then the one a little less heavy. 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 43 

then the one still a little less, and finally the lightest of all." 
While giving these directions we point to the place on the 
table where each box should be placed. This form of expres- 
sion is not elegant, but we know that it is easily understood. 
Three trials are allowed, and after each the boxes are mixed, 
and the subject asked to begin again. The weights of the 
boxes may be written on the faces of the boxes which rest 
upon the table; it is easy to see whether the subject distin- 
guishes the difference in the weights or not. To pass the 
test it is necessary that a child succeeds in two of three trials. 
Many children do not understand the explanation and remain 
motionless ; so much the worse for them. Others place the 
boxes in any order without lifting them ; and from the little 
attention that they give them, it is easy to see that they 
make no comparison. Others understand that the heaviest 
box must be placed first; and they distinguish between the 
weights of the others most accurately, but they are incapable 
of arranging the other boxes in the order of their decreasing 
weight ; this idea of decreasing weight is unintelligible to 
them. They do not lack in sensibility to weight, but in the 
ability to arrange. Others finally grasp the idea of the de- 
creasing order, and they come a little nearer to applying it; 
they arrange such series as 15, 12, 9, 3, 6, where a single box 
is misplaced ; they can do better, they fail from lack of atten- 
tion and care. This is not a grave error. Nevertheless, we 
exact two absolutely correct arrangements. The time should 
not exceed three minutes. 

We have already said that this test is one of those which 
best detect intelligence without culture, as it is absolutely in- 
dependent of all instruction. We also remarked that the kind 
of intelligence indicated by it is of a very special nature. 
There are some children, very intelligent otherwise, who fail 
to arrange these boxes, while others do so accurately and with 
facility. 

II. Copies drawings from memory. — The child is asked 
to draw from memory two drawings (Fig. 8, Appendix) after 



44 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

being allowed to look at them for ten seconds. The atten- 
tion of the subject is prepared in advance; he is told that he 
will be asked to reproduce the drawings from memory, and 
that he will have but 10 seconds to look at them, and that 10 
seconds is but a short time. It is difficult to estimate the 
exactitude of the reproduction without taking a number of 
measurements, which for our purpose would be unnecessarily 
troublesome. We have adopted the following rule, which 
is in practice quite convenient: The test is considered passed 
when one of the designs is reproduced exactly, and half of 
the other is correctly drawn ; the section of the prism is 
always presented at the left; the subject's attention is usually 
attracted first by this picture, and it is doubtless for this rea- 
son that it is usually reproduced more correctly than the 
other one. 

III. Criticises absurd phrases. — This is not the test of 
which we first thought. Our aim was to test the judgment 
of the child. For this purpose we employed a method used 
by some foreign alienists; we made absurd statements in or- 
der to see whether the child would assent to them. Here are 
some examples of absurd phrases which we used at first : 
"Why is there often a yellow dog when two men quarrel in 
the street?" "Why is a master often decorated when he plays 
billiards?" German alienists put questions of this kind to the 
insane: "Is the snow red or black?" We have found by ex- 
perience that if children of very limited intelligence accept 
these absurdities, and try to find an answer for our strange 
question, other children, very intelligent ones, are also taken 
in by the trick. We have concluded that the acceptance of 
an absurd statement by a child does not depend entirely upon 
feebleness of judgment; it depends largely upon timidity, def- 
erence, confidence and automatism. We remember having 
dictated our absurd phrases, together with others which were 
not absurd, to a class of backward children at the Salpetriere. 
Of course imbeciles and defectives were not lacking among 
them ; but there were about fifteen children who could answer 
in writing. They formed a crowd, and the crowd is not timid 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 45 

nor deferential. Every time that we pronounced one of our 
"Why" absurdities, it was saluted by an explosion of ironic 
laughter, which came from all the pupils. The defectives 
comprehended the absurdity of our questions, and not being 
held back by reserve, they expressed their feelings noisily. 
All these reasons decided us to change the form of the test. 
Instead of asking the child to discover whether there is an 
absurdity or not, we tell him plainly that there is one, and 
that we want him to discover it and point it out to us; with 
this method no feeling of reserve, timidity or deference para- 
lyzes the judgment of the child, if he is endowed with it. 

The only difficulty about the test is to grasp the meaning 
of the child when he expresses himself badly by obscure 
phrases. Often the child has the feeling that our statement 
is absurd, but he cannot give the reasons for this feeling, can- 
not express himself in words. To feel is one thing, to explain 
the feeling another. It often happens that a child simply re- 
peats the phrase, or the part of it containing the absurdity, 
without further commentary than his insistence on that part 
of the phrase, and his air of disapprobation. All this gives 
opportunity for much interesting analysis on the processes 
of comprehension and explanation. We will return to this 
elsewhere. 

In making the test we begin with the following explana- 
tion : "I am going to read you some sentences, each of which 
contains something foolish. Listen attentively, and tell me 
each time what it is that is foolish." Then each sentence is 
read slowly, very slowly, in an impressive tone, and immedi- 
ately afterward, in a changed tone, the child is asked : "What 
is foolish in that?" This test generally proves interesting on 
account of its novelty. 

1. — An unfortunate bicycle rider fell on his head and was 
killed instantly; he was taken to a hospital and they fear he 
will not recover. Correct responses : As he is dead it is certain 
that he cannot recover. — // he is dead he cannot recover. — See- 
ing that he is dead, he cannot he cured. — You say that he is 



46 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

dead, then that he is taken to a hospital, and that they fear he 
will not recover! Incorrect responses: // is foolish to go bi- 
cycling. — It is foolish, to recover. — Hospital — There is nothing 
foolish in that. 

2. — I have three brothers — Paul, Ernest and myself. Cor- 
rect responses: You have but two brothers. — You are not your 
own brother. — // you have three brothers you must have three 
brothers, you must not count yourself. You should say, I have 
two brothers. Incorrect responses: The foolishness is that you 
say myself. — You should say your name. — That which is fool- 
ish is Earnest. — The foolishness there is you. — There is nothing 
foolish. 

3, — The body of an unfortunate young girl, cut into eighteen 
pieces, was found yesterday on the fortifications. It is thought 
that she killed herself. Correct responses: She could not cut 
herself into eighteen pieces. — // she cut off her arm she could 
not cut up the rest. Incorrect responses: It was foolish to kill 
herself. — The eighteen pieces are the foolish thing. — One can- 
not tell whether she killed herself. — There is nothing foolish. — 
It is that it is not true. — She had no quarrel zvith herself that 
she should cut herself up. 

4. — There zvas a railroad accident yesterday, hut it ivas not 
a bad one; the number of dead is only 48. Correct responses : 
It is bad if there are 48 dead; it is very bad. — It is not bad and 
the number of dead are 48! Incorrect responses: 48 dead. — 
There is nothing foolish. — It is that there were no deaths. One 
shoidd say many dead bodies. 

5. — Someone said: "If I should ever grozv desperate and 
kill myself, I will not choose Friday, because Friday is an un- 
lucky day and will bring me unhappiness. Correct responses : 
// he kills himself, it makes no difference whether it be Friday 
or any other day. — It makes no difference if he is dead. — If he 
killed himself on Friday it could not bring him bad luck. — He 
might as well kill himself on Friday as on Saturday; that is of 
no importance. Incorrect responses: Friday is just like any 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 47 

Other day, it does otot bring had luck. — Friday is no worse than 
any other day. — The foolishness is killing himself. — The fool- 
ishness is the bad luck. — It is Friday. — There is nothing foolish. 
— Gne should not be superstitious. — Because one knows nothing 
about it. 

Five sentences are enough to test the critical faculty. 
To pass the test a child must make at least three satisfactory 
responses. The test requires about 2 minutes. It is one of 
those which reveals very well the intelligence of a child. 

IV. Understands difficult questions. — These questions 
are similar to the preceding ones, but more subtle, and pre- 
sent in addition some difficulties of vocabulary. 

1. — What would you do if you were delayed in going to 
school? Correct responses: / woidd have to hurry. — / would 
have to run, etc. A misunderstanding of the question is shown 
in many of the incorrect replies. The subjects often answer 
as if they had understood; what will happen f They say: Be 
punished. — Be put in the corner. — The teacher zvould slap me. 
Some even think of the future, and how they can best avoid 
a repetition of the tardiness : / woidd not do it again. — 
/ woidd leave earlier. Another misunderstanding is more 
subtle. The question which we ask implicitly signifies this : 
You are retarded ; how make this retardation as little as pos- 
sible? This is clearly the thought, but it is possible to miss 
it, and some have understood that they were asked how they 
would adapt themselves to the circumstances if they were 
actually too late. / woidd have to ring the bell (the door of 
the school is closed and the late pupils ring). / woidd bring 
an excuse from my parents. We consider, by convention, only 
one response correct; the first one: hurry. 

2. — What would you do before taking part in an important 
affair f Correct responses : Think over the affair. — Reflect. — 
Ask advice. Incorrect responses are not very intelligible. The 
subject usually has not understood the expression, "taking part." 
/ should take care of the sick. — / should considt the doctor. — I 
should go away. 



48 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

3,^ — Why is a bad action done when one is angry more 
excusable than the same action done when one is not angry? Cor- 
rect responses : Because an act done in anger is not inten- 
tional. — An angry person is not responsible. — An aaigry person 
does not realise what he does. The incorrect answers result 
either from a total failure to compreliend the question, or from 
the fact that the child's attention is arrested by the word anger, 
which suggests to him disapproval of that state. When one is 
angry one will not listen. He should not allow himself to get 
angry. This question is the most difficult of all, and often the 
child understands without being able to express his thought. 
The expression is not important if the experimenter is able to 
assure himself that the child has the thought that anger consti- 
tutes an excuse. 

4. — What would you do if you zvere asked your opinion of 
someone whom you did not know well? Correct responses: / 
could not give any. — / coidd not speak without knowing. — / 
woidd have to be silent for fear of giving incorrect information. 
The incorrect responses are usually unintelligible. / should have 
to ask. I should have to a>nswer. Say to him, Be wise. Say 
that I did not know his name. 

5. — Why should one judge a person by his acts rather 
than by his words? Correct responses : Because words lie 
and acts speak the truth. Because one is more sure of acts 
than of words. Incorrect answers, unintelligible: It is im- 
necessary to lie. Because one does not know. With the 
two preceding tests, one is often met by the silence of the 
child, and the difficulty is to know what this silence covers; 
it may be that the child can think of no reply or that he has 
thought of an incorrect one which fails to satisfy him, or even 
that he has thought of a good answer which does not satisfy 
his judgment. The experimenter is often quite puzzled. Con- 
sideration of the whole group of a child's answers assists 
much in the judgment of each. The examiner should have the 
patience to allow the child at least 20 seconds for reflection 
on each question. Two incorrect responses in five are allowed. 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 49 

At seven and eight years the majority of the questions 
in this second series are never answered correctly ; at ten 
years scarcely half of the children succeed. This test is then 
for the transition period between ten and eleven years. 

In a general way this is the best test of intelligence, as 
commonly understood, in the whole series. Sometimes, after 
an examination one hesitates on a diagnosis. The child has 
failed in one or two tests, but this does not seem convincing. 
Failure to give the day and date and the months of the year 
are excusable errors, which may be caused by distraction or 
by lack of education. But the questions for comprehension 
dissipate all doubts. We recall several instances when teach- 
ers brought us children, desiring to know whether or not they 
were abnormal. Occasionally, in this way they set a trap for 
us, but we did not object; it was fair play. Our questions 
for comprehension decided us every time. We remember 
one child who was very slow in answering, as though dull ; 
his face was expressionless and unprepossessing; he knew 
neither the day nor date, nor w^hat day comes after Sunday, 
and he was 10)^ years old; his reading was still syllabic. But 
when we asked question 5: Why do we judge a person by 
his acts rather than by his words? he gave the following 
answer: Because words are not very sure and acts are more 
sure. This was enough — our opinion was formed; that child 
was not so dull as he seemed. 

V. Uses three given words in two sentences.— This is 
the first time that we have asked for an invention. This one 
is verbal. It presupposes that the child talks, writes, and 
understands the meaning of the expression "a sentence." 
Three words are written on a piece of paper — Paris, Fortune, 
Stream. They are read to the child several times, then he is 
told : "You make a sentence and use in it these three words." 
He is then given a pencil. Some declare that they do not 
understand ; often it is the expression "make a sentence" which 
confuses them. Xo other explanation should be given them^ but 
the first instruction may be repeated. Others understand, but 



50 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

either think of no sentence whatever, or one that fails to satisfy 
them. As these last may be purists, it is necessary to insist 
that they write some sentence. The sentences written may be 
divided into three principal groups: 

1. Three distinct ideas are given. — Examples: Paris is a 
city, someone has a fortune, the stream flows. — Paris is a small 
city, a fortune is many cents, a stream is a little river running 
through a gutter at the side of the pavement. 

2. Two ideas are given. — Examples: In Paris there are 
some streams and men zvho have large fortunes. — Paris pos- 
sesses streams and a fortune. 

3. Only one idea is given. — Example : The Seine is a 
stream which brings a fortune to Paris. — In a stream at Paris 
I found a fortune. — A drunken man without fortune has been 
found in a stream at Paris. 

Another type of sentence, somewhat similar to this uni- 
fied form, is that in which several phrases are used, but well 
co-ordinated. / live in Paris; a gutter carrying a stream of 
water to the sezver rims through the street on which I live. I 
know a man living a few doors from my father who has a large 
fortune. — hi my youth I zvas in Paris; for a month I drifted 
with the stream, then a man took pity on me, he adopted me, 
and at his death I inherited his fortune. 

We find in these sentences a means of distinguishing 
several stages of mental development. We retain but two, 
the last two. The three words in two sentences and the three 
words in a single sentence. The first of these tests, the three 
words in two phrases, is never passed at seven years, an age 
when a child does not write sufficiently well to succeed. At 
eight years, none, or almost none, succeed. At nine years, 
one-third of the children, and at ten years, one-half succeed. 
We allow one minute to write the sentence. If at the expi- 
ration of one minute the sentence is not written, or at least 
three-quarters written, the child fails. Note that this is one 
of the rare tests the results of which may be influenced by 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 51 

information carried from child to child. We have had such 
experience. 

A second remark: We have already said, apropos o£ 
pictures, that it is necessary to make a distinction between 
the level of intelligence and the judgment, and have cited the 
example of an adult who had reached an advanced mental 
level, being able to interpret pictures, who nevertheless gave 
expression to ridiculous ideas in the midst of his interpreta- 
tions. This distinction between the judgment and the intel- 
lectual level appears subtle, but it is not. We again find it 
in this test. There are children who compose a single sen- 
tence containing the three given words, but the sentence is 
devoid of sense and they fail to see it. Examples : Paris is 
a city of fortune by the stream. — At Paris, where there are 
streams, they make fortunes. — Paris is a great fortune, which 
has a large stream. 

These sentences are correctly constructed, and prove their 
authors to be of the mental age of twelve years, but they at 
the same time prove them to be very weak in judgment. Ulte- 
rior researches will doubtless show how much importance 
should be attached to these facts. 

CHILDREN OF TWELVE YEARS. 

I. Resists suggestion (length of lines.) — This test be- 
longs to the twelfth year. A little white paper book of 6 
pages is made. On the first page two lines are drawn with 
ink a and h ; the first, that is, the one on the left, is four centi- 
meters long, and the second five centimeters ; they are placed 
in line with each other and one centimeter apart; on the sec- 
ond page two similar lines are drawn, the first five centimeters, 
the second six; on the third page the first line is six centi- 
meters and the second seven. On each of the three following 
pages two lines are drawn in the same position, but all are of 
the same length, seven centimeters. We have, then, if we 
designate the lines by the letters of the alphabet, the follow- 
ing order: 



52 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

a <^ & 
c <^ d 

e < i 
g = h 
i = k 

I = m 

In showing the first three pairs of lines, the experimenter 
says to the child: "Which is the longer of these two lines?" 
When the three last pairs are reached, the form of the ques- 
tion is slightly changed, and he limits himself to the words, 
"And these?" The child succeeds in the test if he judges 
two of the last three pairs of lines to be equal. Experience 
proves that very young children, even those of seven years, 
are capable of distinguishing the difference between the lines 
a and b, c and d, e and /, When the equal lines are 
reached, the child is played upon by two influences ; first is the 
influence of training. Until now, during three trials he has 
seen that the line to the right was the longer; it is then nat- 
ural to suppose that this will continue; it is a supposition, a 
generalization, in such cases where the operation is a con- 
scious and reflective one; but we think that most often there is 
no conscious process, but an unreflective tendency, a budding 
automatism, a habit. It is rather a sketch of a habit, a 
habit in the making, certainly not very strong or resistant;, 
but, nevertheless, it exists, and can determine alone the kind 
of response, if no cause for a contrary response comes up to 
oppose and frustrate it. The second influence is that of re- 
flection, founded on the perception of the lines ; a single glance 
suffices to show that that on the right has ceased to be longer 
than that on the left. And if the child reflects, he will resist 
his automatism and no more say that the line on the right 
is the longer. He will, on the contrary, declare them to be 
equal. Thus analyzed theoretically, the test appears to be a 
revelation of the suggestibility of the child ; the most suggest- 
ible are those who are led by the automatism in judging the 




OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 53 

three pairs of lines; the least suggestible are those who de- 
clare equal the three pairs of lines; and finally we count, fol- 
lowing our accustomed rule, two correct responses in three 
sufficient for success. 

As the term suggestibility has several meanings, it is 
important to add that it signifies here not that suggestibility 
due to defect of character or judgment, but that resulting 
from heedlessness, from lack of attention. It is because the 
child depends upon habit and does not pay attention to the 
real length of the new lines which are shown him, that he 
falls into the trap. But we are not sure that this analysis of 
this particular form of suggestibility is entirely correct. Sug- 
gestibility rarely depends upon intelligence alone; character 
and feeling have also an influence. The child who has formed 
the habit, under his master's eye, of answering that the long- 
est line is the one to the right is emotionally excited to persist 
in this answer, to the right; he is actually forced to do so; 
sometimes he perceives that he has erred, blushes and is 
ashamed and ill at ease, but he does not correct himself, he 
persists in his error. There is some emotional trouble — a 
strange one, not yet well analyzed. 

II. Uses three given words in one sentence. — This test 
is explained above. All children succeed at twelve years and 
scarcely a third at ten. 

III. Says more than sixty words in three minutes. — The 
child is told to name in three minutes as many words as he 
possibly can. Such words as table, beard, shirt, carriage, etc. 
His ambition is aroused by telling him that some children 
have named more than 200 words, which is perfectly true. 
This test is very interesting, for it is fertile in suggestions; 
besides the number of words, one can note their relations; 
some subjects give only detached words, each of which re- 
quires an effort to recall. Others give a series of words, the 
furnishings of a school, various articles of clothing, geological 
terms, etc. Some use only names of common objects; others 



54 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

cite abstract qualities or rather far fetched words. All this 
gives an idea of the mentality of the subject. The use of 
series of words and of abstract terms indicates a certain 
amount of intelligence and culture. But in our test we take 
account only of the number of words. At least 200 words 
may be given without hurry in three minutes' time, provided 
no effort is required to think of them. But such efifort is 
necessary, and everyone has not the same power of recall. 
Little children exhaust an idea in naming it. They say, for 
example, hat, then pass on to another object without noticing 
that hats differ in color, in form, have various parts, different 
uses and accessories, and that in enumerating all these they 
could find a large number of words. Their lack of skill in 
the use of language and in the analysis of ideas is very strik- 
ing. Some children of ten years spend as much as 30 seconds 
trying in vain to think of a word. By this test we are able 
to estimate, according to observations which we have made 
elsewhere, both the intellectual activity of an individual and 
his verbal type. Those who have many words at command, 
those who think in words, those who habitually think of 
abstract subjects, or those who are fond of puns appear to 
have the advantage over others. Sixty words is the minimum 
requirement, Children of twelve years succeed, sometimes 
giving as many as 150 or 200 words; one of our subjects 
gave 218. 

IV. Defines abstract terms. — Definitions are required 
for three abstract terms — charity, justice and kindness. The 
formula used is very simple: What is ? 

Charity. — A good definition should contain two ideas : that 
of unfortunate people and that of kindness shown them. — Good 
responses: It is the act of aiding people who are in trouble. — 
It is giving money to the old zvho are unable to work. — It is to 
give alms. — Charity is to have pity for the poor people one meets, 
and if one has some money, to give them some. Bad responses: 
It is to be good. — It is to be charitable. — It is to beg. — It is a 
person zvho is good. — // is a poor person. — It is to ask pardon. 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 55 

Justice. — A good definition contains the idea of law, that is 
to say, of rule, of protection accorded to people and their in- 
terests, or the idea of people being treated according to their 
merits. Good answers : Justice is an act which consists in sen- 
tencing persons who are guilty and in dismissing those who are 
innocent. — It is a law which rules. — Justice is to punish the 
wicked even though they be rich. Incorrect responses : Justice 
is that which judges. — Justice is a judgment. — It is where people 
are judged. — It is to cut the throat. — It is agents. 

Kindmess. — A good definition should express the idea of 
affection, of tenderness, or simple acts of kindness where no 
inequality of condition exists between those who give and those 
who receive. Good definitions: Kindness is to he polite to 
others. — Kindness is to wait when a person cannot pay, and not 
to heat other people. — It is to return good for evil. — Kindnes's 
is to share with others. Incorrect responses: Kindness is to 
he kind. — It is to do something good. — Kindness is to be very 
well dressed. — It is to lift one's hat. — Kindness is diligence. — 
Kindness is to he presumptuous. 

Tv^o correct definitions are required. This test is some- 
times difficult to interpret. At eight and nine years some 
children give good definitions, but this is quite rare. At ten 
years one-third succeed, at twelve years the majority. 

V. Derives the sense of a sentence the words of which 
are mixed. — This test is suggested by the tests of Ebbinghaus 
which require the subject to supply missing words in sen- 
tences. We use the three following groups of words which 
we present to the child, saying: "Put those words in their 
proper order and find the sentence which they make." 

1. For — an — the — at — hour — early — we — country 
• — started. 

2. To — asked — exercise — my — I — teacher — correct— my. 

3. A — defends — dog — good — his — master — bravely. 
Solutions: (1) We started at an early hour for the coun- 



56 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

try, or. At an early hour we started for the country. Incorrect 
responses : We started country 

(2) I asked my teacher to correct my exercise. 

(3) A good dog defends his master bravely. Another ar- 
rangement not so good is : A dog defends his good master 
bravely. Incorrect arrangements : A master defends his good 
dog bravely. — A dog defends his master bravely good. 

It is a puzzle which interests many children. There is 
much individual difference in the rapidity with which the 
solution is formed. Some only take 5 seconds, others 20 and 
sometimes even 50 seconds. The time limit is one minute for 
each sentence. Two correct solutions are required. 

Some children, failing to comprehend the instructions, 
supply words or compose sentences having no connection 
with the given words. For example, one gave the following 
sentences: The dog runs. — / defend my country. — / bought 
some candy. 

CHILDREN OF FIFTEEN YEARS. 

I. Repeats seven digits. — This test is made in the same 
manner as that calling for the repetition of five digits. The 
child is told in advance that he will have' seven numbers 
to repeat. One success in three trials suffices. 

II. Gives three rhymes. — We begin by asking the subject 
whether he knows the meaning of the word rhyme. Whether 
he knows it or not (and often he thinks that he knows it 
when in reality he does not) we give him the following explana- 
tion : "Two words which rhyme are two words which end 
with the same sound. Thus, pumpkin, napkin — pumpkin! napkin! 
They both end in kin. In the same way mutton rhymes with 
button; they both end in ton. Do you understand? I am go- 
ing to say a word and then you will try to think of all the 
other words which rhyme with it. It is the word obey. Find 
all the words which rhyr^e with obey." One minute is 
allowed for reflection and the child is required to find three 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 57 

rhymes in this time. He can be urged but not assisted. He 
usually begins by giving disobey. Sometimes a series of 
words are given which do not rhyme. Sometimes words are 
coined with the required ending or even with some other end- 
ing. Finally some children who have understood nothing re- 
peat pumpkin, napkin, while others, differently oriented say: 
To obey, I obey, I disobey, or punishment, naughtiness. Some 
even cite various examples of disobedience: To take things 
belotnging to the other children, to kick, etc. This test is one 
of the easiest to estimate. 

in. Repeats a sentence of 26 syllables. — We have com- 
posed a series of 22 sentences regularly increasing in length, 
from 2 to 44 syllables, and each formed of words very easy 
to understand. By the use of these we can easily measure 
an individual's ability for verbal repetition. When the sen- 
tences are presented to a subject in the order of their length 
the following facts are always noticed : Certain sentences are 
exactly reproduced, then, as their length is increased, insig- 
nificant changes are made in the reproduced phrases ; the place 
of a word is changed, a nonessential word is omitted or 
replaced by a synonym. These slight alterations occur in a 
zone corresponding to an increase of 6 to 10 syllables. Finally 
grave omissions occur ; an essential part of the sentence is 
forgotten or modified. We think it best to allow no error. 

We will remark in passing that the memory for verbal 
repetition does not increase much from the sixth to the tenth 
year in spite of the immense intellectual difference which sepa- 
rates these two ages. 

Thus a series of children six years of age, taken from the 
school Maternelle, gave the following series of maxima for 
repetition: 22—18—20—18—20—24, A series of children of 
nine and ten years gave : 16 — 22 — 22 — 22 — 22 — 22 — 22. One 
would expect a much greater difference. Decidedly the power 
of memory does not increase greatly with age. 



58 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

At 15 years we require the correct repetition of a sentence 
of 26 syllables. These are the sentences which we use : 

24 syllables: My little children, you must work very hard 
for your living; you must go to school every morning. 

26 syllables : The other day I saw on the street a pretty 
yellow dog. Little Maurice has stained his nice new apron. 

28 syllables: Ernest is frequently punished for his bad 
conduct. I bought at the store a pretty doll for my little sister. 

30 syllables : There zvas a severe storm last night with much 
lightning. My comrade caught cold and he nozv has a high 
fever and coughs a great deal. 

32 syllables : The car is less expensive than the omnibus, it 
costs but two cents. It is strange to see women acting as coach- 
men in Paris. 

IV. Interprets a picture. — See above, 

V. Solves a problem from several facts. — Another prob- 
lem, but one which requires good sense rather than insight. 
We have drawn up two situations each of which presents a 
problem. Here they are : 

1. A woman walking in the forest of Fontainebleau stopped 
suddenly dreadfully frightened, hurried to the nearest policeman 
and told him that she had just seen hanging to the limb of a tree 
— (after a pause) what? 

2. My neighbor has just received some singidar visitors. 
He received one after the other a doctor, a lawyer and a priest. 
What is going on at my neighbor's? 

Both of these questions pique the curiosity of the subjects. 
To the first some have replied: A bird, a snail, a bird nest 
hunter, a robber, an apache, an assassin, a tree trunk, a branch, 
a bimch of grass. 

The only correct response, Implied by the context is : A 
person who has been hanged. 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 59 

For the second question the correct response is : He is very 
ill, he is dying. — Someone is very ill there, dead. Incorrect re- 
sponses : / do not know. An erroneous answer often consists 
in a repetition of the question. It happens that he has received 
a doctor and a priest. 

A correct response to each question is required. 

ADULTS.* 

I. Solves the paper cutting test. — A square sheet of 
paper folded along both diameters is given to the subject; in 
the middle of the edge which presents but a single fold, a 
small triangle (1 cm. in height and having for its base the 
paper's edge) is drawn. We say to the subject: "Here is a 
sheet of paper which has been folded in four; suppose that 
here (pointing to the triangle) I cut away the little triangle 
of paper which is marked out. Now, if I should unfold the 
paper, what would I see? Draw the paper, showing how 
and where it would be cut" (Fig. 10, Appendix). The sub- 
ject is not allowed to touch the paper in any manner, and is 
forbidden also to fold another piece of paper. The attempt 
to represent the result of cutting the folded paper must be 
guided by the imagination alone. 

The test is difficult. Most subjects simplify the solution 
greatly. They think that only one hole is cut, a square or a 
lozenge, sometimes a 5 pointed star, and that its position is 
the center of the paper. This position is suggested by the 
position of the triangle in the middle of the edge. Some draw 
two lozenges side by side. To be correct, two lozenges must 



*NOTE. — It is not necessary to take the expression "adult" liter- 
ally and to suppose that the tests placed under this rubric indicate the 
intellectual level of an adult. Adults have very different intellectual 
levels dependent upon the social class to which they belong; there 
does not exist a single adult level but several. The tests given here 
simply indicate a level which is clearly higher than that of 15 years. 



60 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

be drawn in line with each other and each placed in the 
middle of one-half of the paper. When a child succeeds in 
this test in his first attempt, it is always necessary to ask 
him whether he was already familiar with it. 

II. Reconstructs a triangle. — A visiting card has been 
cut in two pieces along the diagonal (Fig. 11, Appendix). 
The pieces are placed on a sheet of paper in their original 
position. The subject is directed: "Look well at the lower 
piece. Suppose that I turn it around and place this edge 
(tracing the edge a — c with the finger) on this edge (a — b 
of the upper piece). Suppose further that the point c is 
placed just on the point b. Now, I take away the piece; in 
your imagination, place it as I have described and draw its 
outline in this position. Commence by following the 
outline of the upper piece." The test is very difficult. It is 
required that the subject draw a right angle at b, and that the 
edge a c be shorter than the edge a b. Often only one of 
these conditions is fulfilled. 

III. Gives difference in meaning of abstract terms. — 
"What is the difference between laziness and idleness? — Be- 
tween event (evenement) and advent (avenement). — Between 
an evolution and a revolution?" These are the questions that 
are asked. Correct answers to two suffice. In stating the 
difference between idleness and laziness it is necessary to 
point out that the former results from external circumstances, 
while the latter is an individual characteristic. For the dis- 
tinction between event and advent it is hardly necessary to 
mention that an event (evenement) is something that takes 
place, while an advent (avenement) is a king's ascension to 
the throne.* An evolution is a slow progressive change ; a 
revolution is a sudden change ; some persons take the word 



*TRANSLATOR'S NOTE.— As it seems impossible to retain 
both meaning and similarity of sound of this pair of words, we have 
translated avenement, advent, and of course accept a general mean- 
ing instead of the particular one noted in the text. 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 61 

evolution in the sense of the maneuvers of a troop and revolu- 
tion in the sense of a grave popular insurrection; in this case 
the distinction is not so good, as the two words are different 
without being opposites, and it should be understood that we 
are asking for oppositions and not simple differences. How- 
ever, these responses are considered valid. 

IV. Solves the question concerning the president. — 
Question: '"There are three principal differences between a 
king and a president of the republic. What are they?" They 
are the following: Royalt}^ is hereditary*, it lasts during the 
life of the monarch, and it confers ver}- great powers ; a 
president of the republic is elected, his term of office is limited, 
and his powers are not so great as are those of a king. 

V. Summarizes an obseri-ation made by Herv'ieu. — The 
following paragraph is read slowly and impressively: We call 
it the thought of Hervieu; the thought only is borrowed; he 
wrote it in three lines, but his arrangement was not adapted to 
our needs; we have amplified it to prevent its being retained 
absolutely by the memory, as it would be in its original brief 
form, 

Many opinions have been given on the value of life. Some 
call it good, others call it had. It zi'ould be more just to say, 
that it is mediocre, for on the one hand our happiness is never 
so great as vje zi'ould have it, and on the other hand our 
misfortunes are never so great as others ivoidd have them. It is 
this mediocrity of life vuhich makes it just, or rather which pre- 
vents it from being radically unjust. 

Before beginning the reading we tell the subject to listen 

with care because he will be asked at the close of the reading 
to repeat the selection. In this manner the test is placed in 
the field of memory; and those who do not succeed in com- 
prehending the rather subtle thought of Hen-ieu, will be 
spared the embarrassment of feeling that they have betrayed 
a lack of comprehension; the failure will be attributed to 



62 A. METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

faults of memory and attention, and this is infinitely less 
painful. The central thought, which it is necessary to repro- 
duce, is the following: "Life is neither good nor bad, but 
mediocre, for it is inferior to that which we desire, and su- 
perior to that which others desire for us." The terms used 
matter little; the essential thing is that the thought be well 
understood; and this will be the less doubtful, the less the 
subject tries to repeat the text verbatim. 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 63 



PART II. 

Description of the conditions necessary for a satisfactory 
examination. — In the first place use an isolated, quiet room. 
Be alone with the child as much as possible and have a sec- 
retary to take the child's replies verbatim. A child of thirteen 
or fourteen may be used for this purpose, if a very intelli- 
gent one is chosen and some supervision given. Meet the 
child pleasantly, do not stare at him when questioning him ; 
if he seems timid, constantly reassure him, not only by a 
pleasant manner, but by using one of the tests which seems 
most like a game (pictures or making change). Encourage 
constantly in a kind way throughout the examination; show 
satisfaction with the answers whatever they are. Never criti- 
cise, and do not lose time by making a lesson of it. There 
is a time for all things. The object now is to judge of the 
mental plane of the child, not to instruct it. Above all, never 
aid the child by a supplemental explanation which may put 
him on the right track. One is often tempted to do this, and 
it is wrong; one feels uneasy and fears the child has not 
understood. Vain scruple, because the test is the sort that 
should be understood. Hold closely, then, to the formula for 
each test without addition or retraction. Encouragement 
should be given by the tone of voice, or by words wholly 
devoid of meaning which serve only to stimulate : "Go on ! 
Quickly now ! Hurry up ! Good ! Very good ! Perfect ! Mar- 
velous ! etc." If it is necessary to have a visitor, insist upon 
his absolute silence. How difficult to secure! Every teacher 
wishes to interfere in the examination, to give a supplementary 
explanation, especially if the child belongs to her class. Have 
the courage to enforce silence. 

Commence with each subject by using the tests designed 
for his age. If too difficult tests are tried at first he is dis- 



64 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

couraged. If on the contrary they are too easy, he grows 
disdainful, wonders whether he is being made fun of and makes 
no effort. We have seen manifestations of this misplaced 
pride. 

In reference to the experimenter, himself, some conditions 
are necessary. He must not allow himself to be prejudiced 
by information obtained from other sources. He should ban- 
ish from his mind all that he has been told concerning the 
child and consider him as an X, which he must solve with the 
means in his power. He should be firmly convinced that in 
using the method one must necessarily gain a profound knowl- 
edge of the child, and so entirely ignore all other informa- 
tion. But this confidence in one's self often fluctuates. At 
first all appears easy ; it is the epoch of illusions. After a 
few trials, even the least critical see errors everywhere and 
are discouraged. But if one works on, long and patiently, 
confidence returns little by little ; it is not now the optimism 
of the beginner, it is a reasonable, reflective confidence. One 
is conscious both of his powers and of his limitations. 

This initiative period lasts for at least 5 or 6 seances 
of two hours each; and represents examinations of twenty 
children. All experimenters intending to use the method 
should submit to such a preparation. 

The tests should be prepared in advance; the little 
material required should be close at hand; all the required 
coins should be kept in a special purse. Two records should 
be kept; the first recording the numerical results of the 
tests, and the second, a note book, recording the responses 
in detail. 

The first record is a large sheet of paper ruled in squares 
on which are written in a column at the left, the names of the 
tests, grouped according to age. Following these names as 
many parallel columns are drawn as there are children to be 
examined, each being headed by the name of the child. After 
a child has been examined, the result for each test is recorded 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 65 

in the column reserved for that child, and opposite the test 
names; the results are expressed by the following symbols: 
The sign -f- indicates that the test is passed; the sign — indi- 
cates failure; the sign indicates a silence; the sign ? indi- 
cates that the result is doubtful ; if a doubtful result is nearer 
failure than success the sign — ? is used; if it is nearer 
success the sign -f? When the result is excellent we use 
+ ! and when it is altogether bad ! We advise that the sign 
be recorded immediately after the test is completed, not after 
the examination upon the reading of the notes. It is easy to 
understand why we so advise. In recording a symbol we do 
not register automatically what takes place, but we record 
a judgment, and this judgment stands a greater chance of 
being correct when the occurrence is more recent. No matter 
how detailed the notes, they reproduce but very incompletely 
the actual experience ; an enormous amount of detail is 
omitted, as a matter of course, to be supplied by the memory 
of the experimenter ; it would be wrong to trust entirely to the 
notes. 

Having marked the results of the tests by signs, more 
extended notes are recorded in the note book. This should 
contain the full name of the child, his age, date of birth, the 
date and place of examination, the quality of the assistants 
and any exceptional circumstances influencing the examina- 
tion. Often this information is not recorded ; later, on 
referring to the record it cannot be supplied. We advise also 
keeping a record of the school standing of the child, the 
number of pupils in his class, the attitude of the child during 
the examination (natural, heedless, timid, dull, undisciplined, 
etc.) and finally the social scale of the parents (want, poverty, 
mediocrity, ease, riches.) If, by chance, some important fact 
in the history of the child is discovered, record it also. If 
a little boy of nine coming from a country district has never 
attended school, this must be noted. 

The notes relative to each test which should be recorded 
in this book, vary; experience is the best teacher of what is 



66 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

useful to preserve. It is necessary to bear in mind that the 
symbol alone is altogether insufficient, and that we should 
have sufficient data to enable another experimenter to judge 
of them on his own account. Thus, in the responses to the 
questions involving the reasoning powers, the manner in which 
the child explains or criticises the absurdities of certain 
phrases must be given at length ; in using the test requiring 
the repetition of figures it is well to have model series and 
not to vary them ; then the figures the child gives may be 
recorded; this precaution will guard against the possible loss 
of interesting facts. Example : The experimenter recites : 
1 — 3 — 9 — 2 — 7. The child believing himself repeating, says : 
1 — 3 — 4 — 5 — 6. The error is very grave, graver than had he 
said: 1 — 3 — 8 — 5 — 0; for in the first repetition he has fol- 
lowed the natural order of numbers, and by so doing has 
implicity admitted the absurdity that he has been asked to 
repeat numbers in their natural order. A little commentary 
helps to fix the result in memory. The definitions of words 
and objects and the resume of the thought of Hervieu should 
be written in detail. In the test calling for 60 words it is 
sometimes difficult to write all the words given by the child ; 
interesting indications can, however, always be secured ; for 
example, each word may be represented by a vertical line, 
and a new group be started every half minute (the total test 
lasts three minutes) ; thus a record is secured of the number 
of words written in the first half minute, the number in the 
second, the number in the third, etc. ; this shows whether the 
subject has increased or decreased in speed as the experiment 
progressed, and this in turn gives some indication of his 
ability to work ; I am also in the habit of dotting the lines 
which correspond to the names of objects mentioned, and of 
underlining those which stand for an unusual word, one not in 
common use. We advise that the rhymes given be recorded 
and also the sentence containing the three given words. By 
exacting all these notes from collaborators it is possible to 
judge with what care the experiments have been made. A 
record of the intelligence of a child, presented without other 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 67 

data than some symbols, certainly seems subject to doubt; 
it can not be tolerated; it would encourage negligence and 
even fraud. 

Utilization of Notes. — We have recorded a series of signs 
in vertical columns; these signs succeed each other irregu- 
larly ; here there is a — , there a +. How shall we interpret 
them? It is at once evident, that no matter how the tests 
are arranged it is impossible to find an order in which one 
test will mark the limit of achievement, all tests preceding it 
being passed successfully and all those following being too 
difficult. Such an order can easly be arranged for one in- 
dividual, but it would not prove satisfactory for a second and 
a third. Let us examine the efifect of the order which we 
have adopted, as shown in an examination of 10 children, 
nine years of age. In the tests for the ninth year which 
amount to 50 (as there are 5 tests and 10 pupils) these ten 
children failed in 6 and succeeded in 44. In the tests for the 
tenth year, they failed in 14 and succeeded in 36. We do not 
find a limiting test, which foils all, and which only foils 
children of this age or younger. That would be a useful 
criterion, but we have not discovered it and do not believe that 
it exists. The reality is less simple. The experiment shows 
us the following fact: The nine-year-old children succeeded 
in all the very simple tests, they succeeded in none of the 
very difificult ones; in the tests of moderate difficulty, some 
children succeeded with certain ones, and some children with 
others. This varied with each child. This is the fact which 
we are obliged to consider. Each child has its own individu- 
ality ; one succeeds well with test A and fails with test B ; 
another of the same age, fails with test A and succeeds with 
test B. How shall we deal with these individual differences 
in our experimental results? We have no exact knowledge 
concerning them ; it is probable that the mental faculties stimu- 
lated by the tests differ and are of an unequal development in 
different children. If a child has a better memory than his 
companions, it is natural for him to be more successful in a 
test of simple repetition. Another who has already a capable 



68 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

hand will arrange the weights more successfully. Another 
reason is that all of our tests presuppose an effort of attention 
and the attention varies during a period of concentration, 
especially with young people; now it is intense; one minute 
later it is relaxed. Suppose that the subject has a moment 
of distraction, of embarrassment, of ennui during a test, it 
may cause complete failure. One cannot doubt the justice 
of this last reason. We are so convinced on this point that 
we think it chimerical and absurd to judge the intelligence 
of a child by one test alone. 

The preceding considerations lead to the conclusion that 
the intellectual level of a child can be judged only by a group 
of tests. It is success in several distinct tests which alone is 
characteristic. Intelligence cannot be estimated as can the 
height. For height it suffices to have a table of mean heights for 
the various ages ; given a child we measure it, and then turn to 
the table of means ; it is very easy by a simple comparison to 
ascertain whether the child measures up to the standard height of 
children of his age, or whether lie is retarded one year, two years, 
etc., or, on the contrary is advanced one year, two years, etc. 
There is very little artificiality about this method of estimation. 

It is altogether otherwise when we estimate the intelli- 
gence. If one wishes to apply the same system of comparison 
between the intelligence of one child and the mean intelli- 
gence of children of different ages one is arrested by the 
difficulty which we have mentioned above ; a child is retarded 
for certain tests of his age and advanced for others. We think, 
however, that this difficulty can be overcome; but it is on 
condition that we adopt some convention ; and the said con- 
vention, be it the best possible, will always give to the pro- 
ceeding an artificial character. If by chance another conven- 
tion had been adopted sensibly different results would have 
been reached. We feel it necessary to insist on this fact, be- 
cause later, for the sake of simplicity of statement, we will 
speak of a child of eight years having the intelligence of a 
child of seven or of nine years ; these expressions if accepted 
arbitrarily may give place to illusions. It is necessary to re- 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 69 

member that the estimate of the amount of retardation or 
precocity of intelligence depends partially upon the conven- 
tional proceeding which we have adopted. 

The rules which we apply are two. The first is as fol- 
lows : A child has the intellige(nce of that age all the tests for 
which he succeeds in passing. Here is a child nine years of age 
who passes all the tests for the seventh year, he has then at 
least the intelligence of a child of seven. The second rule is 
as follows : After determining the age for which a child passes 
all the tests, a year is added to the intelligence age, if he has 
succeeded in passing five additional tests belonging to superior 
age groups, two years are added if he has passed ten such tests, 
three years if he has passed fifteen, and so on. 

Thus a child passed the five tests for the eighth year; 
he has the intelligence of eight years; in addition he passed 
three tests for nine years and two tests for ten years ; we add 
one year for the five tests, the record stands 8-[-l==9, and the 
child has an intelligence of nine years. Another example : A 
child passed the 5 tests for 6 years ; he has the intelligence of 
6 years ; he also passed 3 tests for 7 years, 3 for 8 years, 2 for 
9 years, 2 for 10 years, and 1 for 11 years; this gives him 
eleven extra tests, and adds two years to his intelligence age, 
making it 8 years. A last example : A child passed all the 
tests for 4 years; he passed in addition 1 test for 5 years, 3 
for 6 years, 2 for 7 years, 4 for 8 years, 3 for 9 years, and 2 
for 10 years; he has passed then 15 additional tests which is 
equivalent to 3 years and he is accorded the mental age of 7. 

The result of this notation is that it qualifies a child as 
regular in intelligence if it has an intelligence age equal to its 
age; as advanced in intelligence if it has an intelligence 1 or 2 
years greater than its age, and as retarded in intelligence if it 
has an intelligence 1 or 2 years inferior to its age. The 
symbols used to express the results are = or -\- I, -\-2, +3, 
etc., or — 1, — 2, — 3, etc. 

We would add that a child should not be considered de- 
fective in intelligence no matter how little he knows unless 



70 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

his retardation of intelligence amounts to more than two 
years. 

Remarks : — The researches which have enabled us to cal- 
culate our norms, were made in those primary schools of 
Paris which are situated in the poorer disticts. Experience 
has demonstrated that the children of persons in easy circum- 
stances present in general a higher intellectual development 
than that expressed by our means. Thus, in a private school, 
frequented by the bourgeoisie, and where the classes con- 
sist of from 8 to 10 pupils, the pupils show a mean one 
and one-half years in advance of our normal means. It is 
important to add that our examinations have been made but 
once, and by a stranger, who, without intimidating the child, 
inspired him with a certain deference. Other results would 
be obtained if the examination were repeated several times 
or if it were conducted by a person too well known to the 
child to produce a deferential attitude, etc., briefly, if the 
very precise conditions which we have indicated, were ignored. 

If a child is to be examined the second time, it is best to 
allow a period of at least 6 months to intervene between the 
examinations^ and to guard against the coaching of the child 
by his companions. 

A last word for those persons who desire to employ the 
method. Any one can use it for his own personal satisfaction 
or to obtain an approximate evaluation of a child's intelli- 
gence; but for the results of this method to have a scientific 
value, it is absolutely necessary that the individual who uses 
it should have served an apprenticeship in a laboratory of 
pedagogy or possess a thorough practical knowledge of 
psychological experimentation. 



APPENDIX 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 73 



TESTS ARRANGED IN AGE AND DIAGNOSTIC 
GROUPS FOR CONVENIENCE IN CON- 
DUCTING EXAMINATIONS. 



IDIOTS. 



Mental Age 1 and 2 Years.* 

1. Move lighted match slowly before child's eyes. Full 
credit given if eyes follow light for briefest period. 

2. Place a wooden block in child's hand. Credit given if 
block is grasped. 

3. Show the wooden block without touching child with it 
and say: "This is for you, don't you want it to play with?" 
Credit given if child takes it. 

4. Offer child a piece of wood and a piece of chocolate 
of the same size. Credit given if he eats the chocolate and 
does not attempt to eat the wood. 

5. Show child a piece of chocolate, then wrap it in paper 
and present it to him telling him to eat it. Credit given if he 
removes the paper before eating. 

6. Make simple movements, clapping the hands, sitting 
down, standing up, etc., and tell the child to do the same. Credit 
given if one intention is accomplished. 



*These tests for children of 1 and 2 years of age are taken from 
the 1905 series, Methodes nouvelles pour le diagnostic du niveau 
intellectuel des anormeau, L'Annee Psychologique 11, 1905, page 199. 



74 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

IMBECILES. 

Mental Age 3 Years. 

7. Show me your nose. Show me your eyes. Show me 
your mouth. 

8. Listen well and repeat what I say: 4; 3—7; 6 — 4; 
5_8. Pronounce numbers slowly and distinctly with one-half 
second interval between, one pair at a time. Full credit given 
for one exact repetition. 

9. Place Picture 1 before child and ask, "What is that?" 
or "What do you see there?" Follow this by Pictures 2 and 3. 
(Figures 1, 2, 3.) Full credit given if some objects are enumer- 
ated. 

10. "What is your name?" If first name only is given— 
"And your other name?" 

Surname required. 

11. "Listen well and repeat what I say: I am cold and 
hungry." No errors of any kind alloived. 

Mental Age 4 Years. 

12. "Are you a little boy or a little girl ?" If necessary— 
"Are you a little girl?" "Are you a little boy?" 

13. Show child a penknife, saying, "What is that? What 
is it called?" Then show penny, and finally key, asking same 
questions. Names of three objects required. 

14. "Listen well and repeat what I say: A — 9—2; 3 — 
7 4; 5_8 — 1." Full credit given for one exact repetition. 

15. "You see these two lines. Tell me which is the longer." 
(Fig. 12.) 

Mental Age 5 Years. 

16. Place two boxes weighing 3 and 12 grams, respectively, 
on the table before the child, leaving a space of 5 or 6 centi- 
meters between them, and say, "You see these two boxes ? Tell 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 75 

me which is the heavier." Repeat, using boxes weighing 6 and 
15 gramS;, and repeat again, using first pair. 

// there is still doubt about the child's ability to compare 
weights, repeat process. 

17. Draw a square 3 to 4 centimeters in diameter with ink 
and ask the child to copy it, giving him pen and ink to do so. 
(Fig. 19.) 

18. "Listen well and repeat what I say: My name is 
Charley. O ! the naughty dog." 

19. Place four pennies in a row before the child and say: 
"Do you see these pennies ? Count them and tell me how many 
there are." 

Child is required to point to each with finger; no error 
allowed. 

20. Place an oblong card on the table before the child, and 
place also, nearer to the child, two triangular cards formed by 
cutting another card like the first one in two, along a diagonal. 
Place these two triangular cards in such position that their 
hypotheni form a right angle one with the other, then say to 
the child, "Put these two pieces together so that they will form 
one card like this" (indicating the oblong card). If the child 
turns over one triangular piece without noticing it, it is permis- 
sible to begin again. 

Mental Age 6 Years. 

21. "Is it morning now?" "Is it afternoon now?" 

22. "What is a fork?" "What is a table?" "What is a 
chair?" "What is a horse?" "What is a mamma?" 

// some use of three of the objects is mentioned the response 
is considered correct. 

23. Draw a diamond figure with ink and ask the child to 
copy it, giving him pen and ink for the purpose. (Fig. 20.) 

24. Place 13 pennies in a row on the table before the 
child and say: "Count these pennies for me, pointing to each 
one as you count it." 

25. Show pictures of faces (Fig. 6). Expose first the 



76 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

upper two alone, next the two middle ones, and last the lower 
ones, saying each time, "Which is the prettier of these two faces ?" 
No error allowed. 

Mental Age 7 Years. 

26. "Show me your right hand." "Show me your left 
ear." No error alloived. 

27. Show pictures as in Test 9, asking the same questions. 
Full credit given if two pictures are described. 

28. "Take this key and put it on that chair, bring me that 
book lying on the table and open the door." Give these direc- 
tions distinctly twice. 

29. Place three two-cent and three one-cent stamps on the 
table before the child. Make sure that he knows the 2's from 
the I's and then ask him to count how much they would all 
cost. 

30. Have four pieces of colored paper, red, blue, yellow 
and green., Point to each asking, "What is this color?" (Fig. 
21.) No error allowed. 

MORONS. 
Mental Age 8 Years. 

31. (a) "Do you know what paper is:" "Do you know 
what cardboard is?" "Are they alike?" "In what way are they 
not alike ?" 

(b) "Have you ever seen a fly?" "Have you ever seen a 
butterfly?" "Are they alike?" "In what way are they not alike?" 

(c) "Do you know wood when you see it?" "Do you know 
glass when you see it:" "Are they alike?" "In what way are 
they not alike?" Two satisfactory answers required. 

32. "I want you to count backward from 20 to 0. Like 
this — 20 — 19 — 18." This must be accomplished in 20 seconds. 
One error allowed. 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 17 

33. The four pictures in Figure 7 are shown one at a time 
and the question asked with each, "What is missing in this pict- 
ure?" Three correct replies required. 

34. "What day is today?" "What date is it?" 

35. "I am going to say five numbers. Listen well and re- 
peat them exactly: 3, 8, 5, 7, 1 ; 9, 2, 7, 3, 6; and 5, 1, 8, 3, 9." 
One group given at a time. One exact response required. 

Mental Age 9 Years. 

36. In a pile before the child place the following coins : — 
Ten pennies, two nickles, two dimes, one quarter, one half-dollar. 
Then propose a game of store keeping, the child to keep the 
store and use the pile of money to make change, the experi- 
menter to be the customer. Add some articles for sale. Then 
buy something for four cents. Give the child a quarter and 
require the change. 

37. Test No. 22. Credit given for No. 37 if three definitions 
superior to use are given. 

38. Show the child successively a penny, a dime, a dollar, 
a quarter, a nickle, a half-dollar, a two dollar bill, a ten dollar 
bill, a five dollar bill. Ask, "What is this?" with each. 

39. Name the months of tlie year in order. One error 
allowed; time 15 seconds. 

40. (a) "If you were going away and missed your train, 
what would you do?" 

(b) "If one of the boys should hit you without meaning to, 
what would you do about it?" 

(c) "If you broke something belonging to someone else, 
what would you do about it?" Two good responses required. 

Mental Age 10 Years. 

41. Place on the table before the child five boxes weighing 
3, 6, 9, 12 and 15 grams respectively. Say to him, "These little 
boxes all weigh different amounts. Some are heavier and some 



78 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

lighter. I want you to place the heaviest here and by its side 
the one which is a little less heavy, and next to it one still a little 
less heavy, and then one a little less heavy than that, and finally 
here the lightest," Three trials made, the boxes mixed after 
each. Two successes in three are required. 

42. "I am going to show you two drawings, and after you 
have looked at them I shall take them away and ask you to draw 
them from memory. You must look at them closely because 
you will only have them for ten seconds, and this is a very short 
time." (Drawings shown in Figure 8.) 

Full credit is given if the ivhole of o<ne drawing and half 
of the other is reproduced exactly. 

43. "I am going to read you some sentences ; in each one 
of them there is something foolish or absurd. You listen care- 
fully and tell me each time what it is that is foolish." 

(a) "An unlucky bicycle rider fell on his head and was 
instantly killed; they took him to the hospital and fear that he 
cannot get well." After a pause — "What is foolish in that?" 

(b) "I have three brothers — Paul, Ernest, and myself." — 
"What is foolish in that?" 

(c) "The body of a young girl cut into 18 pieces was 
found yesterday. People think that she killed herself." — "What 
is foolish in that?" 

(d) "There was a railroad accident yesterday, but not a 
serious one; only 48 persons were killed." — "What is foolish in 
that?" 

(e) "A man said: 'If I should ever grow desperate and 
kill myself, I should not use Friday, because Friday is an unlucky 
day and might bring me unhappiness/ " — "What is foolish in 
that ?" 

Correct solution of three of the five statements required. 

44. (a) "If you were delayed on your way to school, what 
would you do about it?" 



OF THE INTELLIGENCE OF YOUNG CHILDREN 79 

(b) "Before taking part in something very important, what 
would you do?" 

(c) "Why do we more easily pardon a bad act done in 
anger than a bad act done without anger?" 

(d) "If someone should ask your opinion of one whom you 
did not know very well, what would you say?" 

(e) "Why should we judge a person by his acts rather than 
by his words?" 

Two errors allowed. 

45. Write the words Paris, fortune, stream. Show them 
to the child, reading them to him several times. Then give him 
pen and ink and tell him to write a sentence containing all three 
of these words. 

Full credit is given for two sentences containing the three 
words. 

Mental Age 12 Years. . 

46. "Which is the longer of these two lines ?" (Figure 13,) 
"Which is the longer of these two lines?" (Figure 14.) 
"Which is the longer of these two lines?" (Figure 15.) 
"And of these?" (Figure 16.) 

"And of these?" (Figure 17.) 
"And of these?" (Figure 18.) 

Full credit given if suggestion of longer line to the right 
does not hold in two of last three pair. 

47. Test 45. Credit given for one sentence containing the 
three words. 

48. "I want you to say just as many words as you can in 
three minutes. Some boys say as many as two hundred. Now 
you must try and see how many you can think of." 

Sixty words the minimum accepted. 

49. "What does charity mean?" "What does justice 



80 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

mean?" "What does kindness mean?" Two correct answers 
required. 

50. "Find the sentences which these words make. Fix the 
words in their proper order." (Fig. 9.) 

( a ) For-an-the-at-hour-early-we-country-started. 

(b) To-asked-spelHng-my-I-teacher-correct-my. 

(c) A-defends-dog-good-his-master-bravely. 

NORMAL 
Mental Age 15 Years. 

51. "I am going to say seven numbers. Listen well and 
repeat them exactly: 4, 9, 2, 6, 1, 3, 7; 9, 3, 5, 1, 8, 2, 6; 
2, 7, 4, 9, 3, 8, 5." One success in three required. 

52. "Do you know vv^at the word 'rhyme' means? Two 
words which rhyme are two words which end in the same sound. 
Thus, pumpkin rhymes with napkin. Pump-^m, nap-^m. They 
both end in kvn. The same way mutton rhymes with button.' 
yini-ton and h\xt-ton. They both end in ton. Do you under- 
stand ? Now I am going to give you a word, and you try to find 
all the words which rhyme with it. The word is money. Find 
all the words which rhyme with 'money.' "* 

Three words required in one minute. 

53. "Listen carefully and repeat exactly what I say: The 
other day I saw on the street a pretty yellow dog. Little Morris 
has soiled his nice new apron." 

54. Tests Nos. 9 and 27. Ask the same questions. Full 
credit given if two pictures are intepreted. 



*Money is substituted here for the French word, obeissance, 
the English form for which, obedience, is not adapted to rhyming, 
while the word obey, our first substitution, leads to such rhymes as, 
stay, hay, day, etc., which are not satisfactory. 



OF THE INTELLIGENCR OF YOUNG CHILDREN 81 

55. (a) "A woman was walking through a park in Chi- 
cago. Suddenly she stopped, dreadfully frightened. She ran. 
to the nearest policeman and told him she had seen hanging to 
the limb of a tree" — After a pause — "A what?" 

(b) "My neighbor has just received some singular visits; 
one after another, a doctor, a lawyer, and a priest called. What 
is happening at my neighbor's?" 

Full credit given only if both problems are answered satis- 
factorily. 

ADULT. 

56. "Here is a paper folded in four ; suppose that here 
(pointing to a small triangle which has been drawn in the middle 
of that edge which consists of but a single fold) I cut out this 
little triangle of paper. Now if I unfold the paper, how would 
it look? Draw the paper as it would appear if unfolded, and 
show how and where it would be cut." ( l^ig- 10.) 

Requirements: Two diamonds drawn in line ivith each other 
and each in the center of one-half of a square. 

57. An oblong card cut in two along a diagonal is placed 
in position before the subject. "Look well at the lower piece 
of card. Suppose that I lift it and place this edge (tracing the 
edge a-c with the finger) on this edge {a-h of the upper piece). 
Suppose further that this point (f) is placed just on this point 
{h). Now I take away the piece; in your imagination, place it 
as I have described and draw its outline in this position. Com- 
mence by following the outline of the upper piece." (Fig. 11.) 

It is required that a right angle he represented at (b) and 
that the edge a-c he shorter than the edge a-b. 

58. "\\^hat is the difference between laziness and idleness ?" 
"What is the difference between event and advent?" "\\'hat is 
the difference between evolution and revolution?" Tivo correct 
responses required. 

59. "There are three principal differences between a King 
and a President of a Republic. What are they?" 



82 A METHOD OF MEASURING THE DEVELOPMENT 

Required answer : Royalty is hereditary, the tenure of office 
is for life, and its powers are very great ; the president is elected, 
his tenure of office is limited, and his powers are less extensive. 

60. "Listen attentively to what I am about to read. After 
finishing, I shall ask you to repeat the sense of the selection: 
Many opinions have been given on the value of life. Some call 
it good, others call it had. It zvonld be more just to say that it 
is mediocre, for on the one hand our happiness is never so great 
as zve zvonld have it, and on the other hand our misfortunes 
are never so great as others zvonld have them. It is this medi- 
ocrity of life zvhich makes it just, or rather, zvJiich prez'ents it 
fro)n being radically ]uijusi. 

It is required that the thought of this selection be under- 
stood. 



i 




Figure 3. 





a 






Figure 4. 






A 





5 

Figure 6. 




Figure 6. 



L 




.^n 





Figure 7. 




-mi 



Figure 8. 



For An The 

At Hour Early 

We Country Started 



To Asked Spelling 
My I Teacher 
Correct My 



A Defends 
Dog Good His 
Master Bravely 



Figure 9. 



k 




Figure 10. 




Figure 11. 



Figure 12. 



Pm 



pR 



pR 



fe 



Figure 19. 




Figure 20. 







Figure 21. 



^ 

^ 



